Nuclear War Survival Skills Cresson Kearny 1987

LIFESAVING

NUCLEAR FACTS AND SELF-HELP INSTRUCTIONS

UPDATED AND EXPANDED
1987 EDITION

CRESSON H. KEARNY

AUTHOR OF THE ORIGINAL 1979
OAK RIDGE NATIONAL LABORATORY
EDITION

FOREWORD

BY

DR. EDWARD TELLER

Nuclear War
Survival
Skills

Updated and Expanded
1987 Edition

Cresson H. Kearny

With Foreword by Dr. Edward Teller

Original Edition Published September, 1979,
by Oak Ridge National Laboratory,
a Facility of the
U.S. Department of Energy

Published by the

Oregon Institute of Science and Medicine
Cave Junction, Oregon

Copyright © 1986 by Cresson H. Kearny

Cresson H. Kearny’s additions to the Oak Ridge National Laboratory original 1979
edition are the only parts covered by this copyright, and are printed in this type print to
distinguish these additions from the original upcopyrighted parts. The uncopyrighted
parts are printed in a different type of print (like this).

No part of the added, copyrighted parts (except brief passages that a reviewer may
quote in a review) may be reproduced in any form unless the reproduced material
includes the following two sentences: “Copyright © 1986 by Cresson H. Kearny. The
copyrighted material may be reproduced without obtaining permission from anyone.
provided: (1) all copyrighted material is reproduced full-scale (except for microfiche
reproductions), and (2) the part of this copyright notice within quotation marks is
printed along with the copyrighted material.”

First printing May 1987
Second printing November 1988
Third printing September 1990

ISBN 0-942487 -01-X

Library of Congress Catalogue Card Number 87-60790

CRESSON H. KEARNY
Civil Defense Consultant, Retired

A LETTER TO THE AMERICAN PEOPLE FROM CRESSON KEARNY, INVENTOR OF THE KFM

Dear Reader,

At the time 1 developed the Kearny Fallout Meter with help from U.S. Department of Energy
scientists and engineers, we did not address the issue of nuclear terrorism. We were so
concerned back then in the 1970's with the danger of all-out nuclear war that we neglected to
instruct users of the KFM of its advantages in a terrorist attack with few and smaller nuclear
weapons. Fear of life-threatening fallout from massive Soviet attacks carried over to exaggerated
fears of all radiation, including that from terrorists' few weapons.

In Oak Ridge National Laboratory publications to be read by the public we did not even mention
hormesis, for to have done so at that time probably would have prevented my most influential book,
"Nuclear War Survival Skills," from being purchased and used by government agencies to instruct
civil defense professionals.

When Hitler first bombed London the panic the bombs caused did far more damage than the bombs
themselves. After the citizens of London lost their exaggerated fears of the bombings, life went on
much as normal. And so it would be with a nuclear terrorist attack on the U.S. One nuclear bomb
exploded in a U.S. city would likely be very small. And though it could do catastrophic damage in a
small area, its relative impact on the physical infrastructure of the whole United States would be
extremely small. However, because of the irrational, universal fear people have of any radioactivity,
the panic that would ensue from such an attack would do far more damage than the attack itself.

After the disintegration of the Soviet Union we should have stressed in the KFM instructions that
small doses of radioactivity are hormetic, healthful because they stimulate the immune system. This
was proven in laboratories as far back as the 1920's. With the advent of the A-bomb almost all the
hormetic research stopped. And only in the last decade has it resumed on a serious scale.

In the KFM instructions it was assumed that no medical help would be available during and after a
nuclear war. The doses that an individual can take under those circumstances without being injured
are lower than what that individual can withstand if he has medical assistance such as antibiotics,
etc. In a nuclear terrorist attack medical aid would still be available to the majority of American
citizens; therefore they could withstand somewhat larger radiation doses. This would enable them
to carry on with the daily necessities of life in most areas. If we allow irrational fear and panic
to shut down trucking, communications, and vital services, the disaster will be far greater than
it needs to be.

Assembling a KFM and learning to use it before you need it will help you lose irrational fear of
radioactivity. Y ou will not be paralyzed by panic in an emergency. Y ou will know how to conduct
yourself in a manner that may not only save your life but also the lives of many of those around
you as well.

I urge you to study the KFM instructions now and make an instrument. Y ou should realize that
under terrorist attack conditions the radiation doses you can receive without being incapacitated
are higher than under nuclear wartime conditions. So you can go to work, drive your truck or car,
or assist others.

Sincerely,

Cresson H. Kearny [Signiture in his handwritting]

Cresson H. Kearny [February 1999]

Contents

FOREWORD by DR. EDWARD TELLER 1

ABOUT THE AUTHOR by DR. EUGENE P. WIGNER 3

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 4

INTRODUCTION 5

CHAPTER 1 — The Dangers from Nuclear Weapons: Myths and Facts 11

CHAPTER 2 — Psychological Preparations 20

CHAPTER 3 — Warnings and Communications 22

CHAPTER 4 — Evacuation 27

CHAPTER 5 — Shelter, the Greatest Need 36

CHAPTER 6 — Ventilation and Cooling of Shelters 50

CHAPTER 7 — Protection Against Fires and Carbon Monoxide 61

CHAPTER 8— Water 66

CHAPTER 9 — Food 75

CHAPTER 10— Fallout Radiation Meters 94

CHAPTER 11— Light 100

CHAPTER 12 — Shelter Sanitation and Preventive Medicine 103

CHAPTER 13 — Surviving Without Doctors 108

CHAPTER 14- Expedient Shelter Furnishings 117

CHAPTER 15 — Improvised Clothing and Protective Items , 125

CHAPTER 16 — Minimum Pre-Crisis Preparations 132

CHAPTER 17 — Permanent Family Fallout Shelters for Dual Use 134

CHAPTER 18 — Trans-Pacific Fallout 151

APPENDICES

A — Instructions for Six Expedient Fallout Shelters 155

A.l — Door-Covered Trench Shelter 160

A.2 — Pole-Covered Trench Shelter 164

A.3— Small- Pole Shelter 169

A.4— Aboveground, Door-Covered Shelter 176

A. 5— Aboveground, Ridgepole Shelter 181

A. 6 — Aboveground, Crib- Walled Shelters 187

B — How to Make and Use a Homemade Shelter-Ventilating Pump, the KAP 193

C— Instructions fora Homemade Fallout Meter 213

D — Expedient Blast Shelters 243

E — How to Make and Use a Homemade Plywood

Double- Action Piston Pump and Filter 261

F — Means for Providing Improved Ventilation and Daylight

to a Shelter with an Emergency Exit 273

SELECTED REFERENCES 277

SELECTED INDEX 279

Updated and Expanded 1987 Edition

The purpose of this book is to provide
Americans and other unprepared people with
information and self-help instructions that will
significantly increase their chances of sur-
viving a nuclear attack. It brings together field-
tested instructions that, if followed by a large
fraction of Americans during a crisis that pre-
cedes an attack, could save millions of lives.
The author is convinced that the vulnerability
especially of Americans to nuclear threat or
attack must be reduced and that the wide dis-
semination of the information contained in this
book will help preserve peace with freedom.

Underlying the advocacy of Americans learning
these down-to-earth survival skills is the belief that if
one prepares for the worst, the worst is less likely to
happen. Effective American civil defense preparations
would reduce the probability of nuclear blackmail and
war. Yet in our world of increasing dangers, it is
significant that the United States spends much less per
capita on civil defense than many other countries. The
United States' annual funding is about 50 cents per
capita, and only a few cents of this is spent on
war-related civil defense. Unless U.S. civil de-
fense policies are improved, you are unlikely to
receive from official sources much of the sur-
vival information given in this book.

Over 400.000 copies of the Oak Ridge Nation-
al Laboratory original 1979 edition of Nuclear
War Survival Skills have been sold by various
private publishers. A few additions and modifi-
cations. some helpful and others harmful, were
made in several of these private printings. This
updated and expanded edition is needed because
of changes in nuclear weapons and strategies
between 1979 and 1987. and because of improve-
ments in self-help survival equipment and in-
structions.

The 1987 edition provides current informa-
tion on how the Soviet Union's continuing de-
ployment of smaller, more accurate, more
numerous warheads should affect your shelter-
building and evacuation plans.

In the first chapter the myths and facts about the
consequences of a massive nuclear attack are discussed.
Two post- 1979 myths have been added: the myth
of blinding post-attack increased ultra-violet
sunlight, and the myth of unsurvivable "nuclear
winter" — along with refuting facts.

A new chapter. "Permanent Family Fallout
Shelters for Dual Use", has been added, because
the author has received many requests for

instructions for building permanent small shel-
ters better and less expensive than those de-
scribed in official civil defense hand-outs.
Another new chapter, "Trans-Pacific Fallout",
tells how to reduce radiation dangers that you
will face if one or more nations use nuclear
weapons, but none are exploded on America.

Improved instructions are given for making
and using a KFM. based on the findings of
numerous builders since 1979. (The KFM still is
the only accurate and dependable fallout radia-
tion meter that millions of average people can
make for themselves in a few hours, using only
common household materials — if they have
these improved instructions with patterns.)
Field-tested instructions for easily made Direc-
tional Fans, the simplest means for pumping
air, have been added to the "Ventilation and
Cooling of Shelters” chapter. Also included in
this book are scores of other new facts and
updatings likely to help save lives if nuclear
war strikes.

A new appendix gives instructions for a
homemakeable Plywood Double- Action Piston
Pump, inspired by a wooden air pump the
author saw being used in China in 1982.

This first-of-its-kind book is primarily a
compilation and summary of civil defense
measures developed at Oak Ridge National
Laboratory and elsewhere over the past 24
years, and field tested by typical untrained
Americans in many states, from Florida to
Washington. The reader is urged to make at least
some of these low-cost preparations before a crisis
arises. The main emphasis, however, is on survival
preparations that could be made in the last few days of
a worsening crisis.

The author wrote the original, uncopy-
righted Nuclear War Survival Skills while working
as a research engineer at Oak Ridge National
Laboratory. As a result, he has no proprietory
rights and has gotten nothing but satisfaction
from past sales. Nor will he gain materially
from future sales, as can be judged by reading
his copyright notice covering this edition. Civil
defense professionals and others concerned with
providing better self-help survival information
can reproduce parts or all of this 1987 edition
without getting permission from anyone, pro-
vided they comply with the terms of the copy-
right notice.

Foreword

i

There are two diametrically opposite views on
civil defense. Russian official policy holds that civil
defense is feasible even in a nuclear war. American
official policy, or at any rate the implementation of
that policy, is based on the assumption that civil
defense is useless.

The Russians, having learned a bitter lesson in
the second world war, have bent every effort to
defend their people under all circumstances. They
are spending several billion dollars per year on this
activity. They have effective plans to evacuate their
cities before they let loose a nuclear strike. They
have strong shelters for the people who must
remain in the cities. They are building up protected
food reserves to tide them over a critical period.

All this may mean that in a nuclear exchange,
which we must try to avoid or to deter, the Russian
deaths would probably not exceed ten million.
Tragic as such a figure is, the Russian nation would
survive. If they succeed in eliminating the United
States they can commandeer food, machinery and
manpower from the rest of the world. They could
recover rapidly. They would have attained their
goal: world domination.

In the American view the Russian plan is
unfeasible. Those who argue on this side point out
the great power of nuclear weapons. In this they
are right. Their argument is particularly impressive
in its psychological effect.

But this argument has never been backed up
by a careful quantitative analysis which takes into
account the planned dispersal and sheltering of
the Russian population and the other measures
which the Russians have taken and those to which
they are committed.

That evacuation of our own citizens can be
extremely useful if we see that the Russians are
evacuating is simple common sense. With the use
of American automobiles an evacuation could be
faster and more effective than is possible in Russia.
To carry it out we need not resort to the totalitarian
methods of the iron curtain countries. It will suffice
to warn our people and advise them where to go,
how to protect themselves. The Federal Emergency
Management Administration contains the begin-
nings on which such a policy might be built.

The present book does not, and indeed cannot,
make the assumption that such minimal yet
extremely useful government guidance will be
available. Instead it outlines the skills that in-
dividuals or groups of individuals can learn and
apply in order to improve their chances of survival.

This book is not a description of civil defense.
It is a guide to “Stop-gap” civil defense which
individuals could carry out for themselves, if need
be, with no expenditures by our government. It
fills the gap between the ineffective civil defense
that we have today and the highly effective survival
preparations that we could and should have a few
years from now. However, if we go no further than
what we can do on the basis of this book, then the
United States cannot survive a major nuclear war.

Yet this book, besides being realistic and objec-
tively correct, serves two extremely important pur-
poses. One is: it will help to save lives. The second
purpose is to show that with relatively inexpensive
governmental guidance and supplies, an educated
American public could, indeed, defend itself. We
could survive a nuclear war and remain a nation.

This is an all-important goal. Its most practical
aspect lies in the fact that the men in the Kremlin
are cautious. If they cannot count on destroying us
they probably will never launch their nuclear
arsenal against us. Civil defense is at once the most
peaceful and the most effective deterrent of
nuclear war.

Some may argue that the Russians could
evacuate again and again and thus, by forcing us
into similar moves, exhaust us. I believe that in
reality they would anger us sufficiently so that we
would rearm in earnest. That is not what the
Russians want to accomplish.

Others may say that the Russians could strike
without previous evacuation. This could result in
heavy losses on their part which, I hope, they will
not risk.

Civil defense as here described will not
eliminate the danger of nuclear war. It will con-
siderably diminish its probability.

This book takes a long overdue step in
educating the American people. It does not suggest
that survival is easy. It does not prove that national
survival is possible. But it can save lives and it will
stimulate thought and action which will be crucial
in our two main purposes: to preserve freedom
and to avoid war.

Nuclear War Survival Skills Video Tapes

The Oregon Institute of Science and Medicine, which distributes extensive written, audio, and video information on ex-
pedient and permanent civil defense procedures and preparations, has produced a series of four video tapes in which the field
tested instructions in Nuclear War Survival Skills and facts about nuclear weapons effects are demonstrated by civil defense
volunteers including demonstrations and explanations by Cresson H. Kearny.

Shelter construction and ventilation, water purification, food preparation, radiation monitoring and many other life-saving
procedures - these essential survival skills are performed just as they would be to save lives in a real nuclear emergency.
This is six hours of video viewing that should be experienced by every American family.

Part 1 : Expedient Blast and Radiation Shelters (1 02 minutes)

Part 2: Shelter Ventilation and Various Other Survival Skills (78 minutes)

Part 3: Home-makeable and Commercial Fallout Radiation Meters (117 minutes)

Part 4: Nuclear War Facts as T old to T eenagers (74 minutes)

Complete Set - Four parts - Four tapes: $95.00 VHS $105.00 Beta
Each Tape Alone: $29.50 VHS. $32.00 Beta

Nuclear War Survival Skills Quantity Book Discounts

This book should be in every American home and place of business. It should be a part of all civilian and military defense
preparations. In this nuclear age, prior preparation and knowledge are the primary elements of survival during nuclear war.
This book provides that essential knowledge.

It is published on a non-profit, non-royalty basis by the Oregon Institute of Science and Medicine (a 501 [c] [3] public
foundation). These low prices also are made possible by continuing donations to the Oregon Institute of Science and Medicine
given specifically to help meet the cost of publication and wide distribution of this updated and enlarged edition.

Nuclear War Survival Skills is available postage paid within the United States at the following prices:

1 copy $12.50
5 copies $45.00
10 copies $80.00
1 00 copies $700.00
larger quantities - quoted on request

Please send me:

Nuclear War Survival Skills Books: copies

Nuclear War Survival Skills Video Tapes:

Parti: $29.50 VHS $32.00 Beta Part 3: __ $29.50 VHS $32.00 Beta

Part 2: $29.50 VHS $32.00 Beta Part 4: $29.50 VHS $32.00 Beta

Set of All Four Tapes: $95.00 VHS $105. 00 Beta

I enclose payment of $ .

Please send me more information about civil defense.

I also am enclosing a tax-deductible contribution in the amount of $ .

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Oregon Institute of Science and Medicine • P.O. Box 1279 • Cave Junction, Oregon 97523

About the Author

3

When the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission
authorized me in 1964 to initiate the Civil Defense
Project at Oak Ridge National Laboratory, one of the
first researchers 1 recruited was Cresson H. Kearny.
Most of his life has been preparation, unplanned and
planned, for writing this guide to help people unfamiliar
with the effects of nuclear weapons improve their
chances of surviving a nuclear attack. During the past
1 5 years he has done an unequaled amount of practical
field work on basic survival problems, without always
conforming to the changing civil defense doctrine.

After 1 returned to my professional duties at
Princeton in 1966. the civil defense effort at Oak Ridge
National Laboratory was first headed by James C.
Bresee.and is now'headed by Conrad V. Chester. Both
have wholeheartedly supported Kearny’s down-to-
earth research, and Chester was not only a co-
developer of several of the survival items described in
this book, but also participated in the planning of the
experiments testing them.

Kearny’s concern with nuclear war dangers began
w hile he was studying for his degree in civil engineering
at Princeton — he graduated summa cum laude in
1937. His Princeton studies had already acquainted
him with the magnitude of an explosion in which
nuclear energy is liberated, then only a theoretical
possibility. After winning a Rhodes Scholarship.
Kearny earned two degrees in geology at Oxford. Still
before the outbreak of World War 11. he observed the
effective preparations made in England to reduce the
effects of aerial attacks. He had a deep aversion to
dictatorships, whether from the right or left, and during
the Munich crisis he acted as a courier for an un-
derground group helping anti-Nazis escape from
Czechoslovakia.

Following graduation from Oxford, Kearny did
geological exploration work in the Andes of Peru and
in the jungles of Venezuela. He has traveled also in
Mexico. China, and the Philippines.

A year before Pearl Harbor, realizing that the
United States would soon be at war and that our jungle
troops should have at least as good personal equipment,
food, and individual medical supplies as do exploration
geologists, he quit his job with the Standard Oil
Company of Venezuela, returned to the United States,
and went on active duty as an infantry' reserve lieutenant.
Kearny was soon assigned to Panama as the Jungle
Experiment Officer of the Panama Mobile Force. In
that capacity he was able to improve or invent, and then
thoroughly jungle-test, much of the specialized equip-
ment and rations used by our jungle infantrymen in
World Warll. Forthiswork he was promoted to major
and awarded the Legion of Merit.

To take his chances in combat, in 1 944 the author
volunteered for duty with the Office of Strategic
Services. As a demolition specialist helping to limit the
Japanese invasion then driving into the wintry moun-
tains of southern China, he saw mass starvation and
death first hand. The experiences gained in this capacity
also resulted in an increased understanding of both the
physical and emotional problems of people whose
country is under attack.

Worry about the increasing dangers of nuclear
war and America’s lack of civil defense caused the
author in 1961 to consult Herman Kahn, a leading
nuclear strategist. Kahn, who was at that time forming
a nonprofit war-research organization, the Hudson
Institute, offered him work as a research analyst. Two
years of civil defense research in this “think tank” made
the author much more knowledgeable of survival
problems.

In 1964 he joined the Oak Ridge civil defense
project and since then Oak Ridge has been Kearny's
base of operations, except for two years during the
height of the Vietnam war. For his Vietnam work on
combat equipment, and also for his contributions to
preparations for improving survivability in the event of
a nuclear war. he received the Army’s Decoration for
Distinguished Civilian Service in 1972.

This book draws extensively on Kearny’s under-
standing of the problems of civil defense acquired as a
result of his own field testing of shelters and other
survival needs, and also from an intensive study of the
serious civil defense preparations undertaken by other
countries, including Switzerland. Sweden, the USSR,
and China. He initiated and edited the Oak Ridge
National Laboratory translations of Soviet civil defense
handbooks and of a Chinese manual, and gained
additional knowledge from these new sources. Trips to
England, Europe, and Israel also expanded his infor-
mation on survival measures, which contributed to the
Nuclear War Survival Skills. However, the book
advocates principally those do-it-yourself instructions
that field tests have proved to be practical.

Eugene P. Wigner. Physicist. Nobel Laureate, and
the only surviving initiator of the Nuclear Age.

May. 1979

Acknowledgments

The author takes this opportunity to thank
the following persons for their special contri-
butions, without many of which it would have
been impossible to have written this book:

L. Joe Deal, James L. Liverman, and W. W.
Schroebel for the essential support they made
possible over the years, first by the U.S.
Atomic Energy Commission, next by the
Energy Research and Development Adminis-
tration, and then by the Department of Energy.
This support was the basis of the laboratory
work and field testing that produced most of
the survival instructions developed between
1964 and 1979, given in this book. Mr.
Schroebel also reviewed early and final drafts
and made a number of improvements.

John A. Auxier, Ph.D.; health physicist,
who for years was Director of the Industrial
Safety and Applied Health Physics Division,
Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) — for
manuscript review and especially for check-
ing statements regarding the effects of radia-
tion on people.

Conrad V. Chester, Ph.D., chemical en-
gineer, civil defense researcher, developer of
improved defenses against exotic weapons
and unconventional attacks, nuclear strate-
gist, and currently Group Leader, Emergency
Planning Group, ORNL — for advice and many
contributions, starting with the initial organi-
zation of material and continuing through all
the drafts of the original and this edition.

William K. Chipman, LLD, Office of Civil
Preparedness, Federal Emergency Manage-
ment Agency — for review in 1979 of the final
draft of the original ORNL edition.

George A. Cristy. M.S., who for many
years was a chemical engineer and civil
defense researcher at ORNL— for contribu-
tions to the planning of the original edition
and editing of early drafts.

Kay B. Franz, Ph.D., nutritionist. Asso-
ciate Professor, Food Science and Nutrition
Department, Brigham Young University —
for information and advice used extensively
in the Food chapter.

Samuel Glasstone, Ph.D., physical chem-
ist and the leading authority on the effects of
nuclear weapons — for overall review and con-
structive recommendations, especially re-
garding simplified explanations of the effects
of nuclear weapons.

Carsten M. Haaland. M.S., physicist and
civil defense researcher at ORNL— for scien-
tific advice and mathematical computations
of complex nuclear phenomena.

Robert H. Kupperman, Ph.D., physicist,
in 1979 the Chief Scientist, U.S. Arms Control
and Disarmament Agency, Department of
State — for review of the final draft of the 1979
edition.

David B. Nelson, Ph.D., electrical engineer
and mathematician, for years a civil defense
and thermonuclear energy researcher at
ORNL, an authority on electromagnetic pulse
(EMP) problems — for manuscript review and
contributions to sections on electromagnetic
pulse phenomena, fallout monitoring instru-
ments, and communications.

Lewis V. Spencer, Ph.D., for many years a
physicist with the Radiation Physics Division,
Center for Radiation Research, National
Bureau of Standards — for his calculations
and advice regarding needed improvements
in the design of blast shelters to assure
adequate protection of occupants against ex-
cessive exposure to initial nuclear radiation.

Edward Teller, Ph.D., nuclear physicist,
leading inventor of offensive and defensive
weapons, a strong supporter of civil defense
at Oak Ridge National Laboratory and world-
wide— for contributing the Foreword, original-
ly written for the American Security Council
1980 edition, and for his urging which moti-
vated the author to work on this 1987 edition.

Eugene P. Wigner, Ph.D., physicist and
mathematician, Nobel laureate. Professor
Emeritus of Theoretical Physics, Princeton
University, a principal initiator of the Nuclear
Age and a prominent leader of the civil
defense movement — for encouraging the writ-
ing of the original edition of this book, contri-
buting the About the Author section, and
improving drafts, especially of the appendix
on expedient blast shelters.

Edwin N. York, M.S., nuclear physicist.
Senior Research Engineer, Boeing Aerospace
Company, designer of blast-protective struc-
tures — for overall review and recommenda-
tions, particularly those based on his exten-
sive participation in nuclear and conventional
blast tests, and for improving both the original
and this edition.

Civil defense officials in Washington and
several states for information concerning
strengths and weaknesses of official civil
defense preparations.

Helen C. Jernigan for editing the 1979
manuscript, and especially for helping to
clarify technical details for non-technical
readers.

May E. Kearny for her continuing help in
editing, and for improving the index.

Ruby N. Thurmer for advice and assis-
tance with editing the original edition.

Marjorie E. Fish for her work on the
photographs and drawings.

Janet Sprouse for typing and typesetting
the additions in the 1987 edition.

Introduction

SELF-HELP CIVIL DEFENSE

Your best hope of surviving a nuclear war
in this century is self-help civil defense —
knowing the basic facts about nuclear weapon
effects and what you, your family, and small
groups can do to protect yourselves. Our Govern-
ment continues to downgrade war-related sur-
vival preparations and spends only a few cents
a year to protect each American against possible
war dangers. During the 10 years or more before
the Strategic Defense Initiative (Star Wars)
weapons can be invented, developed and de-
ployed, self-help civil defense will continue to
be your main hope of surviving if we suffer a
nuclear attack.

Most Americans hope that Star Wars will
lead to the deployment of new weapons capable
of destroying attacking missiles and warheads
in flight. However, no defensive system can be
made leak-proof. If Star Wars, presently only a
research project, leads to a deployed defensive
system, then self-help civil defense will be a
vital part of our hoped for, truly defensive
system to prevent aggressions and to reduce
losses if deterrence fails.

PURPOSE AND SCOPE OF THIS BOOK

This book is written for the majority of Americans
who want to improve their chances of surviving a
nuclear war. It brings together field-tested instructions
that have enabled untrained Americans to make
expedient fallout shelters, air pumps to ventilate and
cool shelters, fallout meters, and other expedient life-
support equipment. (“Expedient”, as used in civil
defense work, describes equipment that can be made by
untrained citizens in 48 hours or less, while guided
solely by field-tested, written instructions and using
only widely available materials and tools.) Also
described are expedient ways to remove even
dissolved radioiodine from water, and to process
and cook whole grains and soybeans, our main
food reserves. Successive versions of these
instructions have been used successfully by
families working under simulated crisis condi-

tions. and have been improved repeatedly by
Oak Ridge National Laboratory civil defense
researchers and others over a period of 14 years.
These improved instructions are the heart of
this updated 1987 edition of the original Oak
Ridge National Laboratory survival book first
published in 1979.

The average American has far too little informa-
tion that would help him and his family and our
country survive a nuclear attack, and many of his
beliefs about nuclear war are both false and dangerous.
Since the A-bomb blasted Hiroshima and hurled
mankind into the Nuclear Age, only during a recognized
crisis threatening nuclear war have most Americans
been seriously interested in improving their chances of
surviving a nuclear attack. Both during and following
the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962, millions of Americans
built fallout shelters or tried to obtain survival infor-
mation. At that time most of the available survival
information was inadequate, and dangerously faulty in
some respects — as it still is in 1987. Widespread
recognition of these civil defense shortcomings has
contributed to the acceptance by most Americans of
one or both of two false beliefs:

One of these false beliefs is that nuclear war would
be such a terrible catastrophe that it is an unthinkable
impossibility. If this were true, there would be no
logical reason to worry about nuclear war or to make
preparations to survive a nuclear attack.

The second false belief is that, if a nuclear war were
to break out, it would be the end of mankind. If this
were true, a rational person would not try to improve
his chances of surviving the unsurvivable.

This book gives facts that show these beliefs are
false. History shows that once a weapon is invented it
remains ready for use in the arsenals of some nations
and in time will be used. Researchers who have spent
much time and effort learning the facts about effects of
nuclear weapons now know that all-out nuclear war
would not be the end of mankind or of civilization.
Even if our country remained unprepared and were to
be subjected to an all-out nuclear attack, many millions
of Americans would survive and could live through the
difficult post-attack years.

WHY YOU AND YOUR FAMILY AND
ALMOST ALL OTHER AMERICANS ARE
LEFT UNPROTECTED HOSTAGES TO THE
SOVIET UNION

Unknown to most Americans, our Govern-
ment lacks the defense capabilities that would
enable the United States to stop being dependent
on a uniquely American strategic policy called
Mutual Assured Destruction (MAD). MAD main-
tains that if both the United States and Russia do
not or can not adequately protect their people
and essential industries, then neither will attack
the other.

An influential minority of Americans still
believe that protecting our citizens and our vital
industries would accelerate the arms race and
increase the risk of war. No wonder that Presi-
dent Reagan’s advocacy of the Strategic Defense
Initiative, derisively called Star Wars, is sub-
jected to impassioned opposition by those who
believe that peace is threatened even by research
to develop new weapons designed to destroy
weapons launched against us or our allies! No
wonder that even a proposed small increase in
funding for civil defense to save lives if deter-
rence fails arouses stronger opposition from
MAD supporters than do most much larger
expenditures for weapons to kill people!

RUSSIAN, SWISS, AND AMERICAN
CIVIL DEFENSE

No nation other than the United States has
advocated or adopted a strategy that purposely
leaves its citizens unprotected hostages to its
enemies. The rulers of the Soviet Union never
have adopted a MAD strategy and continue to
prepare the Russians to fight, survive, and win
all types of wars. Almost all Russians have
compulsory instruction to teach them about the
effects of nuclear and other mass-destruction
weapons, and what they can do to improve their
chances of surviving. Comprehensive prepara-
tions have been made for the crisis evacuation
of urban Russians to rural areas, where they
and rural Russians would make high-protection-
factor expedient fallout shelters. Blast shelters
to protect millions have been built in the cities
and near factories where essential workers
would continue production during a crisis.
Wheat reserves and other foods for war sur-
vivors have been stored outside target areas.
About 100,000 civil defense troops are main-
tained for control, rescue, and post-attack re-
covery duties. The annual per capita cost of
Russian civil defense preparations, if made at
costs equivalent to those in the United States, is
variously estimated to be between $8 and $20.

Switzerland has the best civil defense sys-
tem, one that already includes blast shelters for
over 85 percent of all its citizens. Swiss invest-
ment in this most effective kind of war-risk
insurance has continued steadily for decades.
According to Dr. Fritz Sager, the Vice Director
of Switzerland’s civil defense, in 1984 the cost
was the equivalent of $12.60 per capita.

In contrast, our Federal Emergency Manage-
ment Agency, that includes nuclear attack
preparedness among its many responsibilities,
will receive only about $126 million in fiscal
1987. This will amount to about 55 cents for each
American. And only a small fraction of this
pittance will be available for nuclear attack
preparedness! Getting out better self-help sur-
vival instructions is about all that FEMA could
afford to do to improve Americans’ chances of
surviving a nuclear war, unless FEMA’s funding
for war- related civil defense is greatly increased.

PRACTICALITY OF MAKING SURVIVAL
PREPARATIONS DURING A CRISIS

The emphasis in this book is on survival
preparations that can be made in the last few
days of a worsening crisis. However, the mea-
sures put into effect during such a crisis can be
very much more effective if plans and some
preparations are completed well in advance. It
is hoped that persons who read this book will be
motivated at least to make the preparations
outlined in Chapter 16, Minimum Pre-Crisis
Preparations.

Well-informed persons realize that a nuclear
attack by the Soviet Union is unlikely to be a
Pearl-Harbor-type of attack, launched without
warning. Strategists agree that a nuclear war
most likely would begin after a period of days-
to-months of worsening crisis. The most realis-
tic of the extensive Russian plans and prepara-
tions to survive a nuclear war are based on
using at least several days during an escalating
crisis to get most urban dwellers out of the cities
and other high risk areas, to build or improve
shelters in all parts of the Soviet Union, and to
protect essential machinery and the like. The
Russians know that if they are able to complete
evacuation and sheltering plans before the out-
break of nuclear war, the number of their people
killed would be a small fraction of those who
otherwise would die. Our satellites and other
sources of intelligence would reveal such mas-
sive movements within a day: therefore, under
the most likely circumstances Americans would
have several days in which to make life-saving
preparations.

The Russians have learned from the devas-
tating wars they have survived that people are
the most important asset to be saved. Russian
civil defense publications emphasize Lenin’s
justly famous statement: “The primary produc-
tive factor of all humanity is the laboring man,
the worker. If he survives, we can save every-
thing and restore everything . . . but we shall
perish if we are not able to save him.” Strate-
gists conclude that those in power in the Soviet
Union are very unlikely to launch a nuclear
attack until they have protected most of their
people.

The reassurance of having at least a few
days of pre-attack warning, however, is lessen-
ing. The increasing numbers of Soviet blast
shelters and of first-strike offensive weapons
capable of destroying our undefended retaliatory
weapons will reduce the importance of pre-
attack city evacuation as a means of saving
Russian lives. These ongoing developments
will make it less likely that Americans will
have a few days’ warning before a Soviet attack,
and therefore should motivate our Government
both to deploy truly defensive Star Wars wea-
pons and to build blast shelters to protect urban
Americans.

Nuclear weapons that could strike the United
States continue to increase in accuracy as well
as numbers; the most modern warheads usually
can hit within a few hundred feet of their precise
targets. The Soviet Union already has enough
warheads to target all militarily important fixed-
site objectives. These include our fixed-site
weapons, command and control centers, military
installations, oil refineries and other industrial
plants that produce war essentials, long run-
ways, and major electric generating plants.
Many of these are either in or near cities.
Because most Americans live in cities that
contain strategically important targets, urban
Americans’ best chance of surviving a heavy
nuclear attack is to get out of cities during a
worsening crisis and into fallout shelters away
from probable targets.

Most American civil defense advocates be-
lieve that it would be desirable for our Govern-
ment to build and stock permanent blast shelters.
However, such permanent shelters would cost
many tens of billions of dollars and are not
likely to be undertaken as a national objective.
Therefore, field-tested instructions and plans
are needed to enable both urban evacuees and
rural Americans to build expedient shelters and
life-support equipment during a crisis.

SMALLER NUCLEAR ATTACKS
ON AMERICA

Many strategists believe that the United
States is more likely to suffer a relatively small
nuclear attack than an all-out Soviet onslaught.
These possible smaller nuclear attacks include:

• A limited Soviet attack that might result if
Russia’s rulers were to conclude that an Ameri-
can President would be likely to capitulate
rather than retaliate if a partially disarming
first strike knocked out most of our fixed-site
and retaliatory weapons, but spared the great
majority of our cities. Then tens of millions of
people living away from missile silos and Stra-
tegic Air Force bases would need only fallout
protection. Even Americans who live in large
metropolitan areas and doubt that they could
successfully evacuate during a nuclear crisis
should realize that in the event of such a limited
attack they would have great need for nuclear
war survival skills.

• An accidental or unauthorized launching of
one or several nuclear weapons that would
explode on America. Complex computerized
weapon systems and/or their human operators
are capable of making lethal errors.

• A small attack on the United States by the
fanatical ruler of an unstable country that may
acquire small nuclear weapons and a primitive
delivery system.

• A terrorist attack, that will be a more likely
possibility once nuclear weapons become avail-
able in unstable nations. Fallout dangers could
extend clear across America. For example, a
single small nuclear weapon exploded in a West
Coast city would cause lethal fallout hazards to
unsheltered persons for several miles downwind
from the part of the city devastated by blast and
fire. It also would result in deposition of fallout
in downwind localities up to hundreds of miles
away, with radiation dose rates hundreds of
times higher than the normal background. Fall-
out would be especially heavy in areas of rain-
out; pregnant women and small children in
those areas, following peacetime standards for
radiation protection, might need to stay shel-
tered for weeks. Furthermore, in localities
spotted across the United States, milk would be
contaminated by radioiodine.

Surely in future years nuclear survival
know-how will become an increasingly impor-
tant part of every prudent person’s education.

WHY THIS 1987 EDITION?

This updated and augmented edition is
needed to give you:

• Information on how changes since 1979 in
the Soviet nuclear arsenal — especially the
great reductions in the sizes of Russian war-
heads and increases in their accuracy and num-
ber — both decrease and increase the dangers
we all face. You need this information to make
logical decisions regarding essentials of your
survival planning, including whether you
should evacuate during a worsening crisis or
build or improvise shelter at or near your home.

• Instructions for making and using self-help
survival items that have been re-discovered,
invented or improved since 1979. These do-it-
yourself items include: (1) Directional Fanning,
the simplest way to ventilate shelters through
large openings; (2) the Plywood Double-Action
Piston Pump, to ventilate shelters through pipes;
and (3) the improved KFM, the best homemake-
able fallout meter.

• Facts that refute two demoralizing anti-
defense myths that have been conceived and
propagandized since 1979: the myth of blinding
post-attack ultra-violet radiation and the myth
of unsurvivable “nuclear winter”.

• Current information on advantages and dis-
advantages, prices, and sources of some manu-
factured survival items for which there is great-
est need.

• Updated facts on low cost survival foods and
on expedient means for processing and cooking
whole-kernel grains, soybeans, and other over-
produced basic foods. Our Government stores
no food as a war reserve and has not given even
civil defense workers the instructions needed to
enable survivors to make good use of America’s
unplanned, poorly distributed, large stocks of
unprocessed foods.

• Updated information on how to obtain and
use prophylactic potassium iodide to protect
your thyroid against injury both from war
fallout, and also from peacetime fallout if the
United States suffers its first commercial nu-
clear power reactor accident releasing life-
endangering radiation.

• Instructions for building, furnishing, and
stocking economical, permanent home fallout
shelters designed for dual use— in a new chapter.

• Information on what you can do to prevent
sickness if fallout from an overseas nuclear war
in which the United States is not a belligerent is
blown across the Pacific and deposited on
America — in a new chapter.

EXOTIC WEAPONS

Chemical and biological weapons and neutron
warheads are called “exotic weapons”. Protective
measures against these weapons are notempha-
sized in this book, because its purpose is to help
Americans improve their chances of surviving
what is by far the most likely type of attack on
the United States: a nuclear attack directed
against war- related strategic targets.

Chemical Weapons are inefficient killing agents
compared to typical nuclear warheads and bombs.
Even if exterminating the unprepared popula-
tion of a specified large area were an enemy’s
objective, this would require a delivered pay-
load of deadly chemical weapons many hun-
dreds of times heavier than if large nuclear
weapons were employed.

Biological Weapons are more effective but
less reliable than chemical weapons. They are
more dependent on favorable meteorological
conditions, and could destroy neither our re-
taliatory weapons nor our war-supporting in-
stallations. They could not kill or incapacitate
well protected military personnel manning our
retaliatory weapons. And a biological attack
could not prevent, but would invite, U.S. nuclear
retaliatory strikes.

Neutron Warheads are small, yet extremely ex-
pensive. A 1-kiloton neutron warhead costs about as
much as a 1-megaton ordinary warhead, but the
ordinary warhead not only has 1000 times the explosive
power but also can be surface-burst to cover a very
large area with deadly fallout.

REWARDS

My greatest reward for writing Nuclear War
Survival Skills is the realization that the hundreds
of thousands of copies of the original edition
which have been sold since 1979 already have
provided many thousands of people with sur-
vival information that may save their lives.
Especially rewarding have been the thanks of
readers — particularly mothers with small chil-
dren — for having given them hope of surviving
a nuclear war. Rekindled, realistic hope has
caused some readers to work to improve their
and their families’ chances of surviving, ranging
from making preparations to evacuate high
risk areas during an all too possible worsening
crisis, to building and stocking permanent shel-
ters.

Because I wrote the original Nuclear War
Survival Skills while working at Oak Ridge
National Laboratory at the American taxpayers’

expense, I have no proprietory interest either in
the original 1979 Government edition or in any
of the privately printed reproductions. I have
gotten nothing but satisfaction from the reported
sales of over 400,000 copies privately printed
and sold between 1979 and 1987. Nor will I
receive any monetary reward in the future from
my efforts to give better survival instructions to
people who want to improve their chances of
surviving a nuclear attack.

AVAILABILITY

None of the material that appeared in the
original Oak Ridge National Laboratory un-
copyrighted 1979 edition can be covered by a
legitimate copyright; it can be reproduced by
anyone, without receiving permission. Much
new material, which I have written since my
retirement in 1979 from Oak Ridge National
Laboratory, has been added, and is printed in a
different type. To assure that this new material
also can be made widely available to the public
at low cost, without getting permission from or
paying anyone, I have copyrighted my new
material in the unusual way specified by this
1987 edition's copyright notice.

RECOMMENDED ACTIONS

Work to persuade the President, your Con-
gressmen, your Senators, and other leaders to
support improved nuclear war survival prepara-
tions, starting with increased funding for war-
related civil defense. Urge them to approve and

fund the early deployment of truly defensive
weapons that tests already have proven capable
of destroying some warheads in flight. (Attempts
to develop perfect defenses postpone or prevent
the attainment of improved defenses.)

Obtain and study the best survival instruc-
tions available long before a crisis occurs.
Better yet, also make preparations, such as the
ones described in this book, to increase your and
your family’s chances of surviving.

During a crisis threatening nuclear attack,
present uncertainties regarding the distribution
of reliable survival information seem likely to
continue. Thoroughly field-tested survival in-
structions are not likely to be available to most
Americans.. Furthermore, even a highly intelli-
gent citizen, if given excellent instructions
during a crisis, would not have time to learn
basic facts about nuclear dangers and the rea-
sons for various survival preparations. Without
this understanding, no one can do his best at
following any type of survival instructions.

By following the instructions in this book, you and
your family can increase the odds favoring your
survival. If such instructions were made widely avail-
able from official sources, and if our Government
urged all Americans to follow them during a worsening
crisis lasting at . least several days, additional millions
would survive an attack. And the danger of an attack,
even the threat of an attack, could be decreased if an
enemy nation knew that we had significantly improved
our defenses in this way.

Chapter 1

The Dangers from Nuclear Weapons: Myths and Facts

An all-out nuclear war between Russia and the
United States would be the worst catastrophe in
history, a tragedy so huge it is difficult to compre-
hend. Even so, it would be far from the end of human
life on earth. The dangers from nuclear weapons have
been distorted and exaggerated, for varied reasons.
These exaggerations have become demoralizing
myths, believed by millions of Americans.

While working with hundreds of Americans
building expedient shelters and life-support equip-
ment. 1 have found that many people at first see no
sense in talking about details of survival skills. Those
who hold exaggerated beliefs about the dangers from
nuclear weapons must first be convinced that nuclear
war would not inevitably be the end of them and
everything worthwhile. Only after they have begun to

question the truth of these myths do they become
interested, under normal peacetime conditions, in
acquiring nuclear war survival skills. Therefore,
before giving detailed instructions for making and
using survival equipment, we will examine the most
harmful of the myths about nuclear war dangers,
along with some of the grim facts.

• Myth: Fallout radiation from a nuclear war
would poison the air and all parts of the environment.
It would kill everyone. (This is the demoralizing
message of On the Beach and many similar pseudo-
scientific books and articles.)

• Facts: When a nuclear weapon explodes near
enough to the ground for its fireball to touch the
ground, it forms a crater. (See Fig. 1.1.) Many

ORNL-DWG 78-6264

WIND

►

Fig. 1.1. A surface burst. In a surface or near-surface burst, the fireball touches the ground and blasts a crater.

thousands of tons of earth from the crater of a large
explosion are pulverized into trillions of particles.
These particles are contaminated by radioactive
atoms produced by the nuclear explosion. Thou-
sands of tons of the particles are carried up into a
mushroom-shaped cloud, miles above the earth.
These radioactive particles then fall out of the
mushroom cloud, or out of the dispersing cloud of
particles blown by the winds — thus becoming fallout.

Each contaminated particle continuously gives off
invisible radiation, much like a tiny X-ray machine-
while in the mushroom cloud, while descending, and
after having fallen to earth. The descending radioactive
particles are carried by the winds like the sand and dust
particles of a miles-thick sandstorm cloud except that
they usually are blown at lower speeds and in many
areas the particles are so far apart that no cloud is seen.
The largest, heaviest fallout particles reach the ground
first, in locations close to the explosion. Many smaller
particles are carried by the winds for tens to thousands
of miles before falling to earth. At any one place where
fallout from a single explosion is being deposited on the
ground in concentrations high enough to require the
use of shelters, deposition will be completed within a
few hours.

The smallest fallout particles — those tiny enough
to be inhaled into a person’s lungs— are invisible to the
naked eye. These tiny particles would fall so slowly
from the four-mile or greater heights to which

they would be injected by currently deployed
Soviet warheads that most would remain air-
borne for weeks to years before reaching the
ground. By that time their extremely wide disper-
sal and radioactive decay would make them
much less dangerous. Only where such tiny par-
ticles are promptly brought to earth by rain-
outs or snow-outs in scattered “hot spots," and
later dried and blown about by the winds, would
these invisible particles constitute a long-term
and relatively minor post-attack danger.

The air in properly designed fallout shelters,
even those without air filters, is free of radioactive
particles and safe to breathe except in a few rare
environments — as will be explained later.

Fortunately for all living things, the danger from
fallout radiation lessens with time. The radioactive
decay, as this lessening is called, is rapid at first, then
gets slower and slower. The dose rate (the amount of
radiation received per hour) decreases accordingly.
Figure 1.2' illustrates the rapidity of the decay of
radiation from fallout during the first two days after
the nuclear explosion that produced it. R stands for
roentgen, a measurement unit often used to measure
exposure to gamma rays and X rays. Fallout meters
called dosimeters measure the dose received by
recording the number of R. Fallout meters called
survey meters, or dose-rate meters, measure the dose
rate by recording the number of R being received per
hour at the time of measurement. Notice that it takes
about seven times as long for the dose rate to decay

ORNL-DWG 78-6265

Fig. 1 .2. Decay of the dose rate of radiation from fallout, from the time
of the explosion, not from the time of fallout deposition.

from 1000 roentgens per hour (1000 R/hr)to 10 R/hr
(48 hours) as to decay from 1000 R / hr to 100 R j hr (7
hours). (Only in high-fallout areas would the dose
rate 1 hour after the explosion be as high as 1000
roentgens per hour.)

If the dose rate 1 hour after an explosion is 1000
R hr, it would take about 2 weeks for the dose rate to
be reduced to 1 R hr solely as a result of radioactive
decay. Weathering effects will reduce the dose rate
further; for example, rain can wash fallout particles
from plants and houses to lower positions on or
closer to the ground. Surrounding objects would
reduce the radiation dose from these low-lying
particles.

Figure 1.2 also illustrates the fact that at a
typical location where a given amount of fallout from
an explosion is deposited later than 1 hour after the
explosion, the highest dose rate and the total dose
received at that location are less than at a location
where the same amount of fallout is deposited 1 hour
after the explosion. The longer fallout particles have
been airborne before reaching the ground, the less
dangerous is their radiation.

Within two weeks after an attack the occupants
of most shelters could safely stop using them, or
could work outside the shelters for an increasing
number of hours each day. Exceptions would be in
areas of extremely heavy fallout such as might occur
downwind from important targets attacked with
many weapons, especially missile sites and very large
cities. To know when to come out safely, occupants
either would need a reliable fallout meter to measure
the changing radiation dangers, or must receive
information based on measurements made nearby
with a reliable instrument.

The radiation dose that will kill a person varies
considerably with different people. A dose of 450 R
resulting from exposure of the whole body to fallout
radiation is often said to be the dose that will kill
about half the persons receiving it, although most
studies indicate that it would take somewhat less. 1
(Mole: A number written after a statement refers the
reader to a source listed in the Selected References
that follow Appendix D.) Almost all persons
confined to expedient shelters after a nuclear attack
would be under stress and without clean surround-
ings or antibiotics to Fight infections. Many also
would lack adequate water and food. Under these
unprecedented conditions, perhaps half the persons
who received a whole-body dose of 350 R within a few
days would die.'

Fortunately, the human body can repair most
radiation damage if the daily radiation doses are not
too large. As will be explained in Appendix B, a
person who is healthy and has not been exposed in
the past two weeks to a total radiation dose of more
than 100 R can receive a dose of 6 R each day for at
least two months without being incapacitated.

Only a very small fraction of Hiroshima and
Nagasaki citizens who survived radiation doses —
some of which were nearly fatal — have suffered
serious delayed effects. The reader should realize that
to do essential work after a massive nuclear attack,
many survivors must be willing to receive much
larger radiation doses than are normally permissible.
Otherwise, too many workers would stay inside
shelter too much of the time, and work that would be
vital to national recovery could not be done. For
example, if the great majority of truckers were so
fearful of receiving even non-incapacitating radiation
doses that they would refuse to transport food,
additional millions would die from starvation alone.

• Myth: Fallout radiation penetrates everything;
there is no escaping its deadly effects.

• Facts: Some gamma radiation from fallout will
penetrate the shielding materials of even an excellent
shelter and reach its occupants. However, the
radiation dose that the occupants of an excellent
shelter would receive while inside this shelter can be
reduced to a dose smaller than the average American
receives during his lifetime from X rays and other
radiation exposures normal in America today. The
design features of such a shelter include the use of a
sufficient thickness of earth or other heavy shielding
material. Gamma rays are like X rays, but more
penetrating. Figure 1.3 shows how rapidly gamma
rays are reduced in number (but not in their ability to
penetrate) by layers of packed earth. Each of the
layers shown is one halving-thickness of packed
earth about 3.6 inches (9 centimeters). 3 A halving-
thickness is the thickness of a material which reduces
by half the dose of radiation that passes through it.

The actual paths of gamma rays passing through
shielding materials are much more complicated, due
to scattering, etc., than are the straight-line paths
shown in Fig. 1.3. But when averaged out, the
effectiveness of a halving-thickness of any material is
approximately as shown. The denser a substance, the
better it serves for shielding material. Thus, a
halving-thickness of concrete is only about 2.4 inches
(6.1 cm).

ORNL-DWG 78-18834

5 HALVING-THICKNESSES OF
PACKED EARTH = 18 INCHES
145 cm)

3.6 in. 3.6 in. 3.6 in. 3.6 in. 3.6 in.

(9 cm) (9 cm) (9 cm) (9 cm) (9 cm)

1/32

1/16 1/8 1/4 1/2

REDUCTIONS IN
GAMMA RAYS

32 16

PROTECTION

FACTORS

Fig. 1.3. Illustration of shielding against fallout radiation. Note the increasingly large improvements in the
attenuation (reduction) factors that are attained as each additional halving-thickness of packed earth is added.

If additional halving-thicknesses of packed
earth shielding are successively added to the five
thicknesses shown in Fig. 1.3, the protection factor
(PF) is successively increased from 32 to 64, to 128, to
256, to 512, to 1024, and so on.

• Myth: A heavy nuclear attack would set
practically everything on fire, causing “Firestorms” in
cities that would exhaust the oxygen in the air. All
shelter occupants would be killed by the intense heat.

• Facts: On a clear day, thermal pulses (heat
radiation that travels at the speed of light) from an air
burst can set fire to easily ignitable materials (such as

window curtains, upholstery, dry newspaper, and dry
grass) over about as large an area as is damaged by
the blast. It can cause second-degree skin burns to
exposed people who are as far as ten miles from
a one-megaton (1 MT) explosion. (See Fig. 1.4.)
(A 1-MT nuclear explosion is one that produces the
same amount of energy as does one million tons of
TNT.) If the weather is very clear and dry, the area of
fire danger could be considerably larger. On a cloudy
or smoggy day, however, particles in the air would
absorb and scatter much of the heat radiation, and
the area endangered by heat radiation from the
fireball would be less than the area of severe blast
damage.

ORNL-DWG 78-6267

Fig. 1.4. An air burst. The fireball does not touch
the ground. No crater. An air burst produces only
extremely small radioactive particles— so small
that they are airborne for days to years unless
brought to earth by rain or snow. Wet deposition
of fallout from both surface and air bursts can
result in “hot spots” at, close to. or far from
ground zero. However, such “hot spots” from
air bursts are much less dangerous than the
fallout produced by the surface or near-surface
bursting of the same weapons.

The main dangers from an air burst are the blast
effects, the thermal pulses of intense light and heat
radiation, and the very penetrating initial nuclear
radiation from the fireball.

“Firestorms” could occur only when the concentra-
tion of combustible structures is very high, as in the
very dense centers of a few old American cities. At rural
and suburban building densities, most people in earth-
covered fallout shelters would not have their lives
endangered by fires.

• Myth: In the worst-hit parts of Hiroshima and
Nagasaki where all buildings were demolished, every-
one was killed by blast, radiation, or fire.

• Facts: In Nagasaki, some people survived un-
injured who were far inside tunnel shelters built for
conventional air raids and located as close as one-third
miie from ground zero (the point directly below the
explosion). This was true even though these long, large
shelters lacked blast doors and were deep inside the
zone within which all buildings were destroyed. (People
far inside long, large, open shelters are better protected
than are those inside small, open shelters.)

Fig. 1.5. Undamaged earth-covered family
shelter in Nagasaki.

Many earth-covered family shelters were essen-
tially undamaged in areas where blast and fire destroyed
all buildings. Figure 1 .5 shows a typical earth-covered,
backyard family shelter with a crude wooden frame.
This shelter was essentially undamaged, although less
than 100 yards from ground zero at Nagasaki. 4 The
calculated maximum overpressure (pressure above the
normal air pressure) was about 65 pounds per square
inch (65 psi). Persons inside so small a shelter without a
blast door would have been killed by blast pressure at
this distance from the explosion. However, in a recent
blast test, 5 an earth-covered, expedient Small-Pole
Shelter equipped with blast doors was undamaged at
53 psi. The pressure rise inside was slight — not even
enough to have damaged occupants’ eardrums. If poles
are available, field tests have indicated that many
families can build such shelters in a few days.

The great life-saving potential of blast-protective
shelters has been proven in war and confirmed by blast
tests and calculations. For example, the area in which
the air bursting of a I-megaton weapon would wreck a
50-psi shelter with blast doors in about 2.7 square miles.
Within this roughly circular area, practically all the
occupants of wrecked shelters would be killed by blast,
carbon monoxide from fires, or radiation. The same
blast effects would kill most people who were using
basements affording 5 psi protection, over an area of
about 58 square miles. 6

• Myth: Because some modern H-bombs are over
1000 times as powerful as the A-bomb that destroyed
most of Hiroshima, these H-bombs are 1000 times as
deadly and destructive.

• Facts: A nuclear weapon 1000 times as powerful
as the one that blasted Hiroshima, if exploded under
comparable conditions, produces equally serious
blast damage to wood-frame houses over an area up

to about 130 times as large, not 1000 times as large. For
example, air bursting a 20-kiloton weapon at
the optimum height to destroy most buildings
will destroy or severely damage houses out to
about 1.42 miles from ground zero. 6 The circular
area of at least severe blast damage will be
about 6.33 square miles. (The explosion of a 20
kiloton weapon releases the same amount of
energy as 20 thousand tons of TNT.) One thou-
sand 20-kiloton weapons thus air burst, well
separated to avoid overlap of their blast areas,
would destroy or severely damage houses over
areas totaling approximately 6,330 square miles.
In contrast, similar air bursting of one 20-
megaton weapon (equivalent in explosive power
to 20 million tons of TNT) would destroy or
severely damage the great majority of houses
out to a distance of 16 miles from ground zero. 6
The area of destruction would be about 800
square miles — not 6,330 square miles.

Today few if any of Russia’s huge inter-
continental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) are armed
with a 20-megaton warhead. Now a huge Russian
ICBM, the SS-18, typically carries 10 warheads,
each having a yield of 500 kilotons, each pro-
grammed to hit a separate target. See Jane's
Weapon Systems, 1987-88.

• Myth: A Russian nuclear attack on the United
States would completely destroy all American
cities.

• Facts: As long as Soviet leaders are rational
they will continue to give first priority to knock-
ing out our weapons and other military assets
that can damage Russia and kill Russians. To
explode enough nuclear weapons of any size to
completely destroy American cities would be
an irrational waste of warheads. The Soviets
can make much better use of most of the war-
heads that would be required to completely
destroy American cities; the majority of those
warheads probably already are targeted to knock
out our retaliatory missiles by being surface
burst or near-surface burst on their hardened
silos, located far from most cities and densely
populated areas.

Unfortunately, many militarily significant
targets — including naval vessels in port and
port facilities, bombers and fighters on the
ground, air base and airport facilities that can
be used by bombers. Army installations, and
key defense factories — are in or close to
American cities. In the event of an all-out Soviet
attack, most of these “soft” targets would be
destroyed by air bursts. Air bursting (see Fig.
1.4) a given weapon subjects about twice as
large an area to blast effects severe enough to
destroy “soft” targets as does surface bursting
(see Fig. 1.1) the same weapon. Fortunately for
Americans living outside blast and fire areas,
air bursts produce only very tiny particles.
Most of these extremely small radioactive parti-
cles remain airborne for so long that their
radioactive decay and wide dispersal before
reaching the ground make them much less life-
endangering than the promptly deposited larger
fallout particles from surface and near-surface
bursts. However, if you are a survival minded

American you should prepare to survive heavy
fallout wherever you are. Unpredictable winds
may bring fallout from unexpected directions.
Or your area may be in a “hot spot” of life-
endangering fallout caused by a rain-out or
snow-out of both small and tiny particles from
distant explosions. Or the enemy may use sur-
face or near-surface bursts in your part of the
country to crater long runways or otherwise
disrupt U.S. retaliatory actions by producing
heavy local fallout.

Today few if any of Russia’s largest inter-
continental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) are armed
with a 20-megaton warhead. A huge Russian
ICBM, the SS-18, typically carries 10 warheads
each having a yield of 500 kilotons, each pro-
grammed to hit a separate target. See Jane's
Weapon Systems, 1987-1988. However, in March
1990 CIA Director William Webster told the U.S.
Senate Armed Services Committee that “...The
USSR’s strategic modernization program con-
tinues unabated,” and that the SS-18 Mod 5 can
carry 14 to 20 nuclear warheads. The warheads
are generally assumed to be smaller than those
of the older SS-18s.

• Myth: So much food and water will be poisoned by
fallout that people will starve and die even in fallout
areas where there is enough food and water.

• Facts: If the fallout particles do not become mixed
with the parts of food that are eaten, no harm is done.
Food and water in dust-tight containers are not con-
taminated by fallout radiation. Peeling fruits and vege-
tables removes essentially all fallout, as does removing
the uppermost several inches of stored grain onto
which fallout particles have fallen. Water from many
sources — such as deep wells and covered reservoirs,
tanks, and containers — would not be contaminated.
Even water containing dissolved radioactive elements
and compounds can be made safe for drinking by
simply filtering it through earth, as described later in
this book.

• Myth: Most of the unborn children and grand-
children of people who have been exposed to radiation
from nuclear explosions will be genetically damaged
will be malformed, delayed victims of nuclear war.

• Facts: The authoritative study by the National
Academy of Sciences, A Thirty Year Study of the
Survivors of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, was published
in 1977. It concludes that the incidence of abnormalities
is no higher among children later conceived by parents
who were exposed to radiation during the attacks on
Hiroshima and Nagasaki than is the incidence of
abnormalities among Japanese children born to un-
exposed parents.

This is not to say that there would be no genetic
damage, nor that some fetuses subjected to large
radiation doses would not be damaged. But the
overwhelming evidence does show that the exaggerated
fears of radiation damage to future generations are not
supported by scientific findings.

• Myth: Overkill would result if all the U.S. and
U.S.S.R. nuclear weapons were used — meaning not
only that the two superpowers have more than enough
weapons to kill all of each other’s people, but also that
they have enough weapons to exterminate the human
race.

• Facts: Statements that the U.S. and the Soviet
Union have the power to kill the world’s population
several times over are based on misleading calculations.
One such calculation is to multiply the deaths produced
per kiloton exploded over Hiroshima or Nagasaki by
an estimate of the number of kilotons in either side’s
arsenal. (A kiloton explosion is one that produces the
same amount of energy as does 1000 tons of TNT.) The
unstated assumption is that somehow the world’s
population could be gathered into circular crowds,
each a few miles in diameter with a population density
equal to downtown Hiroshima or Nagasaki, and then a
small (Hiroshima-sized) weapon would be exploded
over the center of each crowd. Other misleading
calculations are based on exaggerations of the dangers
from long-lasting radiation and other harmful effects of
a nuclear war.

• Myth: Blindness and a disastrous increase of
cancers would be the fate of survivors of a
nuclear war, because the nuclear explosions
would destroy so much of the protective ozone
in the stratosphere that far too much ultraviolet
light would reach the earth’s surface. Even
birds and insects would be blinded. People could
not work outdoors in daytime for years without
dark glasses, and would have to wear protective
clothing to prevent incapacitating sunburn.
Plants would be badly injured and food produc-
tion greatly reduced.

• Facts: Large nuclear explosions do inject
huge amounts of nitrogen oxides (gasses that
destroy ozone) into the stratosphere. However,
the percent of the stratospheric ozone destroyed
by a given amount of nitrogen oxides has been
greatly overestimated in almost all theoretical
calculations and models. For example, the
Soviet and U .S. atmospheric nuclear test explo-
sions of large weapons in 1952-1962 were calcu-
lated by Foley and Ruderman to result in a
reduction of more than 10 percent in total ozone.
(See M. H. Foley and M. A. Ruderman, “Strato-
spheric NO from Past Nuclear Explosions”,
Journal of Geophysics, Res. 78, 4441-4450.) Yet
observations that they cited showed no reduc-
tions in ozone. Nor did ultraviolet increase.
Other theoreticians calculated sizeable reduc-
tions in total ozone, but interpreted the obser-
vational data to indicate either no reduction, or
much smaller reductions than their calculated
ones.

A realistic simplified estimate of the in-
creased ultraviolet light dangers to American
survivors of a large nuclear war equates these
hazards to moving from San Francisco to sea
level at the equator, where the sea level inci-
dence of skin cancers (seldom fatal) is highest —
about 10 times higher than the incidence at San
Francisco. Many additional thousands of Ameri-
can survivors might get skin cancer, but little

or no increase in skin cancers might result if in
the post-attack world deliberate sun tanning
and going around hatless went out of fashion.
Furthermore, almost all of today’s warheads
are smaller than those exploded in the large-
weapons tests mentioned above: most would
inject much smaller amounts of ozone-destroy-
ing gasses, or no gasses, into the stratosphere,
where ozone deficiencies may persist for years.
And nuclear weapons smaller than 500 kilotons
result in increases (due to smog reactions) in
upper tropospheric ozone. In a nuclear war,
these increases would partially compensate for
the upper-level tropospheric decreases— as ex-
plained by Julius S. Chang and Donald J.
Wuebbles of Lawrence Livermore National
Laboratory.

• Myth: Unsurvivable “nuclear winter” surely
will follow a nuclear war. The world will be
frozen if only 100 megatons (less than one
percent of all nuclear weapons) are used to
ignite cities. World-enveloping smoke from fires
and the dust from surface bursts will prevent
almost all sunlight and solar heat from reaching
the earth’s surface. Universal darkness for
weeks! Sub-zero temperatures, even in summer-
time! Frozen crops, even in the jungles of South
America! Worldwide famine! Whole species of
animals and plants exterminated! The survival
of mankind in doubt!

• Facts: Unsurvivable “nuclear winter” is a
discredited theory that, since its conception in
1982, has been used to frighten additional
millions into believing that trying to survive a
nuclear war is a waste of effort and resources,
and that only by ridding the world of almost all
nuclear weapons do we have a chance of sur-
viving.

Non-propagandizing scientists recently
have calculated that the climatic and other
environmental effects of even an all-out nuclear
war would be much less severe than the catas-
trophic effects repeatedly publicized by popular
astronomer Carl Sagan and his fellow activist
scientists, and by all the involved Soviet scien-
tists. Conclusions reached from these recent,
realistic calculations are summarized in an
article, “Nuclear Winter Reappraised”, featured
in the 1986 summer issue of Foreign Affairs, the
prestigious quarterly of the Council on Foreign
Relations. The authors, Starley L. Thompson
and Stephen H. Schneider, are atmospheric
scientists with the National Center for Atmos-
pheric Research. They showed ”... that on
scientific grounds the global apocalyptic con-
clusions of the initial nuclear winter hypothesis
can now be relegated to a vanishing low level of
probability.” Their models indicate that in July
(when the greatest temperature reductions

would result) the average temperature in the
United States would be reduced for a few days
from about 70 degrees Fahrenheit to approxi-
mately 50 degrees. (In contrast, under the same
conditions Carl Sagan, his associates, and the
Russian scientists predicted a resulting average
temperature of about 10 degrees below zero
Fahrenheit, lasting for many weeks!)

Persons who want to learn more about
possible post-attack climatic effects also should
read the Fall 1986 issue of Foreign Affairs. This
issue contains a long letter from Thompson and
Schneider which further demolishes the theory
of catastrophic “nuclear winter.” Continuing
studies indicate there will be even smaller
reductions in temperature than those calculated
by Thompson and Schneider.

Soviet propagandists promptly exploited
belief in unsurvivable “nuclear winter” to
increase fear of nuclear weapons and war, and
to demoralize their enemies. Because raging
city firestorms are needed to inject huge
amounts of smoke into the stratosphere and

thus, according to one discredited theory, pre-
vent almost all solar heat from reaching the
ground, the Soviets changed their descriptions
of how a modern city will burn if blasted by a
nuclear explosion.

Figure 1.6 pictures how Russian scientists
and civil defense officials realistically described

— before the invention of “nuclear winter” — the
burning of a city hit by a nuclear weapon.
Buildings in the blasted area for miles around
ground zero will be reduced to scattered rubble

— mostly of concrete, steel, and other non-
flammable materials — that will not burn in
blazing fires. Thus in the Oak Ridge National
Laboratory translation (ORNL-TR-2793) of Civil
Defense, Second Edition (500,000 copies), Moscow,
1970, by Egorov, Shlyakhov, and Alabin, we
read: “Fires do not occur in zones of complete
destruction . . . that are characterized by an
overpressure exceeding 0.5 kg/cm 2 7 psi] . . .
because rubble is scattered and covers the burn-
ing structures. As a result the rubble only
smolders, and fires as such do not occur.”

Translation: [Radioactive] contamination occurs in the area of the explosion and also
along the trajectory of the cloud which forms a radioactive track.

Fig. 1.6. Drawing with Caption in a Russian Civil Defense Training Film Strip. The
blazing fires ignited by a surface burst are shown in standing buildings outside the
miles-wide “zone of complete destruction,” where the blast-hurled “rubble only smolders.”

Firestorms destroyed the centers of Ham-
burg, Dresden, and Tokyo. The old-fashioned
buildings of those cities contained large amounts
of flammable materials, were ignited by many
thousands of small incendiaries, and burned
quickly as standing structures well supplied
with air. No firestorm has ever injected smoke
into the stratosphere, or caused appreciable
cooling below its smoke cloud.

The theory that smoke from burning cities
and forests and dust from nuclear explosions
would cause worldwide freezing temperatures
was conceived in 1982 by the German atmos-
pheric chemist and environmentalist Paul
Crutzen, and continues to be promoted by a
worldwide propaganda campaign. This well
funded campaign began in 1983 with televised
scientific-political meetings in Cambridge and
Washington featuring American and Russian
scientists. A barrage of newspaper and maga-
zine articles followed, including a scare-
mongering article by Carl Sagan in the October
30, 1983 issue of Parade, the Sunday tabloid read
by millions. The most influential article was
featured in the December 23, 1983 issue of Science
(the weekly magazine of the American Associa-
tion for the Advancement of Science): “Nuclear
winter, global consequences of multiple nuclear
explosions,” by five scientists, R. P. Turco, O. B.
Toon, T. P. Ackerman, J. B. Pollack, and C.
Sagan. Significantly, these activists listed their
names to spell TTAPS, pronounced "taps,” the
bugle call proclaiming “lights out” or the end of
a military funeral.

Until 1985, non-propagandizing scientists
did not begin to effectively refute the numerous
errors, unrealistic assumptions, and computer
modeling weaknesses of the TTAPS and related
“nuclear winter” hypotheses. A principal reason

is that government organizations, private cor-
porations, and most scientists generally avoid
getting involved in political controversies, or
making statements likely to enable antinuclear
activists to accuse them of minimizing nuclear
war dangers, thus undermining hopes for peace.
Stephen Schneider has been called a fascist by
some disarmament supporters for having writ-
ten “Nuclear Winter Reappraised,” according to
the Rocky Mountain News of July 6, 1986. Three
days later, this paper, that until recently featured
accounts of unsurvivable “nuclear winter,”
criticized Carl Sagan and defended Thompson
and Schneider in its lead editorial, “In Study of
Nuclear Winter, Let Scientists Be Scientists.” In
a free country, truth will out — although some-
times too late to effectively counter fast-hitting
propaganda-

Effective refutation of “nuclear winter” also
was delayed by the prestige of politicians and of
politically motivated scientists and scientific
organizations endorsing the TTAPS forecast of
worldwide doom. Furthermore, the weaknesses
in the TTAPS hypothesis could not be effectively
explored until adequate Government funding
was made available to cover costs of lengthy,
expensive studies, including improved com-
puter modeling of interrelated, poorly under-
stood meteorological phenomena.

Serious climatic effects from a Soviet-U.S.
nuclear war cannot be completely ruled out.
However, possible deaths from uncertain cli-
matic effects are a small danger compared to
the uncalculable millions in many countries
likely to die from starvation caused by disas-
trous shortages of essentials of modern agri-
culture sure to result from a Soviet- American
nuclear war, and by the cessation of most
international food shipments.

Chapter 2

Psychological Preparations

LEARNING WHAT TO EXPECT

The more one knows about the strange and
fearful dangers from nuclear weapons and about the
strengths and weaknesses of human beings when
confronted with the dangers of war, the better chance
one has of surviving. Terror, a self-destructive
emotion, is almost always the result of unexpected
danger. Some people would think the end of the
world was upon them if they happened to be in an
area downwind from surface bursts of nuclear
weapons that sucked millions of tons of pulverized
earth into the air. They might give up all hope if they
did not understand what they saw. People are more
likely to endure and survive if they learn in advance
that such huge dust clouds, particularly if combined
with smoke from great fires, may turn day into
night as have some volcanic eruptions and the
largest forest fires.

People also should expect thunder to crash in
strange clouds, and the earth to shake. The sky may
be lit with the flickering purples and greens of
“artificial auroras” caused by nuclear explosions,
especially those that are miles above the earth.

FEAR

Fear often is a life-saving emotion. When we
believe death is close at hand, fear can increase our
ability to work harder and longer. Driven by fear, we
can accomplish feats that would be impossible
otherwise. Trembling hands, weak legs, and cold
sweat do not mean that a person has become
ineffective. Doing hard, necessary work is one of the
best ways to keep one’s fears under control.

Brave men and women who are self-confident
admit their fears, even when the threat of death is
remote. Then they plan and work to lessen the causes

of their fears. (When the author helped Charles A.
Lindbergh design a reinforced-concrete blast shelter
for his family and neighbors, Lindbergh frankly
admitted that he feared both nuclear attack and being
trapped. He was able to lessen both of these fears by
building an excellent blast shelter with two escape
openings.)

TERROR

If the danger is unexpected enough or great
enough, normal persons sometimes experience terror
as well as fear. Terror prevents the mind from
evaluating dangers and thinking logically. It develops
in two stages, which have been described by Dr. Walo
von Gregerz, a physician with much war experience,
in his book Psychology of Survival. The first stage is
apathy, people become indifferent to their own safety
and are unable even to try to save themselves or their
families. The second stage is a compulsion to flee.

Anxiety, fear, and terror can result in symptoms
very similar to those caused by radiation injury:
nausea, vomiting, extreme trembling, diarrhea. Dr.
von Gregerz has described terror as being “explo-
sively contagious.” However, persons who learn to
understand the nature of our inherent human traits
and behavior and symptoms are less likely to become
terrorized and ineffective in the event of a nuclear
attack.

EMOTIONAL PARALYSIS

The most common reaction to great danger is
not terror, but a kind of numbing of the emotions
which actually may be helpful. Dr. von Gregerz calls
this “emotional paralysis. ’’This reaction allows many
persons, when in the grip of great danger, to avoid
being overwhelmed by compassionate emotions and

horrible sights. It permits them to think clearly and
act effectively.

ATOM BOMB SURVIVORS

The atomic explosions that destroyed most of
Hiroshima and Nagasaki were air bursts and
therefore produced no deadly local fallout. So we
cannot be sure how people would behave in areas
subjected to both blast and fallout from surface
bursts. However, the reactions of the Japanese
survivors are encouraging, especially in view of the
fact that among them the relative number of horribly
burned people was greater than is likely to be found
among a population that expects a nuclear attack and
takes any sort of shelter. Dr. von Gregerz summa-
rizes: “In most cases the victims were, of course,
apathetic and often incapable of rational action, but
open panic or extremely disorganized behavior
occurred only in exceptional cases among the
hundreds of thousands of survivors of the two atomic
bombing attacks." Also encouraging: “. . . serious
permanent psychological derangements were rare

after the atomic bomb attacks, just as they were after
the large-scale conventional bombings.”

HELP FROM FELLOW AMERICANS

Some maintain that after an atomic attack
America would degenerate into anarchy — an every-
man-for-himself struggle for existence. They forget
the history of great human catastrophes and the self-
sacrificing strengths most human beings are capable
of displaying. After a massive nuclear attack
starvation would afflict some areas, but America’s
grain-producing regions still would have an abun-
dance of uncontaminated food. History indicates
that Americans in the food-rich areas would help the
starving. Like the heroic Russians who drove food
trucks to starving Leningrad through bursting Nazi
bombs and shells , 7 many Americans would risk
radiation and other dangers to bring truckloads of
grain and other necessities to their starving country-
men. Surely, an essential part of psychological
preparations for surviving a modern war is a well-
founded assurance that many citizens of a strong
society will struggle to help each other and will work
together with little regard for danger and loss.

Chapter 3

Warnings and Communications

IMPORTANCE OF ADEQUATE WARNING

When Hiroshima and Nagasaki were blasted by
the first nuclear weapons ever to be used in war, very
few of the tens of thousands of Japanese killed or
injured were inside their numerous air raid shelters.
The single-plane attacks caught them by surprise.
People are not saved by having shelters nearby unless
they receive warning in time to reach their shelters —
and unless they heed that warning.

TYPES OF WARNINGS

Warnings are of two types, strategic and tactical.

• Strategic warning is based on observed enemy
actions that are believed to be preparations for an
attack. For example, we would have strategic
warning if powerful Russian armies were advancing
into western Europe and Soviet leaders were
threatening massive nuclear destruction if the
resisting nations should begin to use tactical nuclear
weapons. With strategic warning being given by news
broadcasts and newspapers over a period of days,
Americans in areas that are probably targeted would
have time to evacuate. Given a day or more of
warning, tens of millions of uscould build or improve
shelters and in other ways improve our chances of
surviving the feared attack. By doing so, we also
would help decrease the risk of attack.

• Tactical warning of a nuclear attack on the
United States would be received by our highest
officials a few minutes after missiles or other nuclear
weapons had been launched against our country.
Radar, satellites, and other sophisticated means of
detection would begin to feed information into our
military warning systems almost at once. This raw

information would have to be evaluated, and top-
level-decisions would have to be made. Then attack
warnings would have to be transmitted down to com-
munities all over America.

Tactical warning (attack warning) of an out-of-
the-blue. Pearl- Harbor-type attack would be less
likely to be received by the average American than
would an attack warning given after recognized
strategic warning. However, the short time (only 15 to
40 minutes) that would elapse between missile launch-
ings and the resultant first explosions on targets in the
United States would make it difficult for even an
excellent warning system to alert the majority of
Americans in time for them to reach the best available
nearby shelter.

Strengths and weaknesses of the present official
warning system are summarized in the following two
sections. Then the life-saving warnings that the first
nuclear explosions would give, especially to informed
people, are described.

OFFICIAL WARNING SYSTEM

The U.S. official warning system is designed to
give civilians timely warning by means of siren signals
and radio and television announcements. The National
Warning System (NAWAS) is a wire-line network
which is to provide attack information to official
warning points nationwide. NAWAS is not pro-
tected against electromagnetic pulse (EMP)
effects from nuclear explosions. When the
information is received at warning points by the
officials who are responsible, they will sound local
sirens and initiate radio and TV emergency broad-
casts — if power has not failed. Officials at NAWAS
warning points include many local civil defense
directors. NAWAS receives information from our

constantly improving military warning and commu-
nications systems.

SIREN WARNINGS

The Attack Warning Signal is a wavering,
wailing sound on the sirens lasting three to five
minutes, or a series of short blasts on whistles or
horns. After a brief pause, it is repeated. This signal
means only one thing: take protective action go
promptly to the best available shelter. Do not try to
telephone tor information; get information from a
radio broadcast after you reach shelter. It is Federal
policy that the Attack Warning Signal will not be
sounded unless an enemy attack on the United States
has been detected. However, since local authorities
mat not follow this policy, the reader is advised to
check the plans in his community before a crisis
arises.

The following limitations of attack warnings
given by sirens and broadcasting stations should be
recognized:

• Only a relatively small fraction of urban
Americans could hear the sirens in the present city
s\ stems. especially if most urban citizens had
evacuated during a crisis.

• Except in a crisis threatening the outbreak of
nuclear war at any moment, most people who would
hear the attack warning signal either would not
recognize it or would not believe it was a warning of
actual attack.

• A coordinated enemy attack may include the
detonation of a few submarine-launched ballistic
missiles (SLBMs) at high altitudes over the United
States within a few minutes of the launching of
hundreds of SLBMs and intercontinental ballistic
missiles (ICBMs). Such high-altitude bursts would
produce electromagnetic pulse (EMP) effects primarily
intended to knock out or disrupt U.S. military com-
munications. These EMP effects also could knock out
the public power necessary to sound sirens and could
put most unprotected broadcasting stations off the air.

Radio warnings and emergency communications
to the general public will be broadcast by the Emergency
Broadcast System (EBS). This system uses AM broad-
casting stations as the primary means to reach the
public; selected FM and TV stations are included for
backup. All stations during a crisis plan to use their
normal broadcast frequencies.

EBS stations that are not put off the air by EMP
or other effects of early explosions will attempt to
confirm the siren warnings of a nuclear attack. They

will try to give information to listeners in the extensive
areas where sirens and whistles cannot be heard.
However, EMP effects on telephones are likely to
limit the information available to the stations. The
functioning EBS stations should be able to warn
listeners to seek the best available nearby shelter in time
for most of these listeners to reach such shelter before
ICBMs begin to explode. Limitations of the Emergency
Broadcasting System in February 1986 included the
fact that EMP protection had been completed for
only 125 of the approximately 2,771 radio sta-
tions in the Emergency Broadcast System. One
hundred and ten of 3,000 existing Emergency
Operating Centers also had been protected
against EMP effects. Many of the protected stations
would be knocked out by blast; most do not afford
their operating personnel fallout protection that is
adequate for continuing broadcasts for long in areas
subjected to heavy fallout.

WARNINGS GIVEN BY
THE ATTACK ITSELF

The great majority of Americans would not be
injured by the first explosions of a nuclear attack. In
an all-out attack, the early explosions would give
sufficient warning for most people to reach nearby
shelter in time. Fifteen minutes or more before big
intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) blasted
our cities, missile sites, and other extensive areas,
most ciiizens would see the sky lit up to an
astounding brightness, would hear the thunderous
sounds of distant explosions, or would note the
sudden outage of electric power and most communi-
cations. These reliable attack warnings would result
from the explosion of submarine-launched ballistic
missiles (SLBMs). These are smaller than many
ICBMs. The SLBM warheads would explode on
Strategic Air Command bases and on many civilian
airport runways that are long enough to be used by
our big bombers. Some naval bases and high-priority
military command and communication centers
would also be targeted.

The vast majority of Americans do not know
how to use these warnings from explosions to help
them save their lives. Neither are they informed about
the probable strategics of an enemy nuclear attack.

One of the first objectives of a coordinated
enemy attack would be to destroy our long-range
bombers, because each surviving U.S. bomber would
be one of our most deadly retaliatory weapons. Once
bombers are airborne and well away from their
runways, they are difficult to destroy. To destroy our

bombers before they could get away, the first SLBMs
would be launched at the same time that lCBMs
would be fired from their silos in Europe and Asia.
US. surveillance systems would detect launchings
and transmit warnings within a very few minutes.
Since some enemy submarines would be only a few
hundred miles from their targets, some SLBMs
would explode on American targets about 15 or 20
minutes before the first lCBMs would hit.

Some SLBMs would strike civilian airport
runways that are at least 7000 ft long. This is the
minimum length required by B-52s; there were 210
such runways in the U.S. in 1977. During a crisis, big
bombers would be dispersed to many of these long
runways, and enemy SLBMs would be likely to target
and hit these runways in an effort to destroy the
maximum number of bombers.

Today most Soviet SLBMs have warheads
between 100 kilotons and one megaton. See
Jane's Weapon Systems, 1987-88. Within 10 to 15
minutes of the beginning of an attack, runways
7000 feet or longer are likely to be hit by
airbursts. to destroy U.S. aircraft and airport
facilities. Later cratering explosions may be
used to destroy surviving long runways, or at
least to produce local fallout so heavy that they
could not be used for several days for re-arming
and re-fueling our bombers. Therefore, homes
within about 4 miles of a runway at least 7000 ft long
are likely to be destroyed before residents receive
warning or have time to reach blast shelters away from
their homes. Homes six miles away could be lightly
damaged by such a warhead, with the blast wave from
a 1 -megaton explosion arriving about 22 seconds
after the warning light. Some windows would be
broken 40 miles away. But the large majority of citizens
w'ould not be injured by these early SLBM attacks.
These explosions would be life-saving “take cover”
warnings to most Americans, if they have been properly
informed.

Sudden power and communications failures caused
by the electromagnetic pulse (EMP) effects of nuclear
explosions also could serve as attack warnings in
extensive areas. An EMP is an intense burst of radio-
frequency radiation generated by a nuclear explosion.
The strong, quick-rising surges of electric current
induced by EMP in power transmission lines and long
antennas could burn out most unprotected electrical
and electronic equipment. Also likely to be damaged
or destroyed would be unprotected computers.
The solid state electrical components of some
aircraft and of some motors of modern autos,
trucks, and tractors may be put out of commis-
sion. Metal bodies give some protection, whereas
plastic bodies give little.

The usual means of protecting electrical equipment
against surges of current produced by lightning are
generally ineffective against EMP. The protective

measures are known, but to date all too few civilian
installations have been protected against EMP effects.
Three or four nuclear weapons skillfully spaced and
detonated at high altitudes over the United States
would produce EMP effects that might knock out most
public power, most radio and TV broadcasting stations
lacking special protection against these effects, and
most radios connected to long antennas. Nuclear
explosions on or near the ground may produce dam-
aging EMP effects over areas somewhat larger than
those in which such equipment and buildings would be
damaged by the blast effects.

HOW TO RESPOND TO UNEXPECTED
ATTACK WARNINGS

Although a Pearl-Harbor-type of attack is
unlikely,- citizens should be prepared to respond
effectively to unexpected warnings.

These warnings include:

• Extremely bright lights -more light than has
been seen before. The dazzling, bright lights of the
first SLBM explosions on targets in many parts of the
United States would be seen by most Americans. One
should not look to determine the source of light and
heat, because there is danger of the viewer’s eyes
being damaged by the heat and light from a large
explosion at distances as far as a hundred miles away,
in dear weather. Look down and away from the
probable source, and quickly get behind anything
that w ill shield you from most of the thermal pulse’s
burning heat and intense light. A thermal pulse
delivers its heat and light for several seconds for
more than 1 1 seconds if it is from a I -megaton surface
burst and for approximately 44 seconds if from a 20-
megaton surface burst.

If you are at home w hen you see the amazingly
bright light, run out of rooms with windows. Hurry
to a windowless hallway or down into the basement.
If you have a shelter close to your house, but separate
from it. do not leave the best cover in your home to
run outdoors to reach the shelter; wait until about
two minutes after first seeing the light.

If outdoors when you see the bright light, get
behind the best available cover.

It would be impossible to estimate the distance
to an explosion from its light or appearance, so you
should stay under cover for about two minutes. A
blast wave initially travels much faster than the
normal speed of sound (about 1 mile in 5 seconds).
But by the time its overpressure has decreased to I
pound per square inch (psi), a blast wave and its
thunderous sound have slowed down and are moving
only about 3 c /f faster than the normal speed of sound.

If no blast or sound reaches you in two minutes,
you would know that the explosion was over 25 miles
away and you would not be hurt by blast effects,
unless cut by shattered window glass. After two
minutes you can safely leave the best cover in your
home and get a radio. Turn the dial to the stations to
which you normally listen and try to find informa-
tion. Meanwhile, quickly make preparations to go to
the best shelter you and your family can reach within
15 minutes — the probable time interval before the
first ICBMs start to explode.

At no time after an attack begins should you
look out of a window or stay near a window. Under
certain atmospheric conditions, windows can be
shattered by a multimegaton explosion a hundred
miles away.

• The sound of explosions. The thunderous
booms of the initial Sl.BM explosions would be
heard over almost all parts of the United States.
Persons one hundred miles away from a nuclear
explosion may receive their first warning by hearing
it about 7 1 2 minutes later. Most would have time to
reach nearby shelter before the ICBMs begin to
explode.

• Loss of electric power and communications. If
the lights go out and you find that many radio and TV
stations are suddenly off the air, continue to dial if
you have a battery-powered radio, and try to find a
station that is still broadcasting.

HOW TO RESPOND TO ATTACK. WARNINGS
DURING A WORSENING CRISIS

If an attack takes place during a worsening crisis,
the effectiveness of warnings would be greater. Even
if our government did not order an evacuation of
high-risk areas, millions of Americans would already
have moved to safer areas if they had learned that the
enemy’s urban civilians were evacuating or that
tactical nuclear weapons were being employed over-
seas. Many prudent citizens would sleep inside the
best available shelter and stay in or near shelter most
of their waking hours. Many people would have
made or improved family or small-group shelters and
would have supplied them with most essentials. The
official warning systems would have been fully
alerted and improved.

During such a tense crisis period, neighbors
or people sheltered near each other should have
someone listen to radio stations at all times of the
day and night. If the situation worsened or an attack

warning were broadcast, the listener could alert the
others.

One disadvantage of waiting to build expedient
shelters until there is a crisis is that many of the
builders are likely to be outdoors improving their
shelters when the first SLBMs are launched. The
SLBM warheads may arrive so soon that the civilian
warning systems cannot respond in time. To reduce
the risk of being burned, persons working outdoors
when expecting an attack should wear shirts, hats,
and gloves. They should jump into a shelter or behind
a nearby shielding object at the first warning, which
may be the sudden cut-off of some radio
broadcasts.

REMAINING INSIDE SHELTER

Curiosity and ignorance probably will cause
many people to come out of shelters a few hours after
an attack warning, if no blast or obvious fallout has
endangered their area. This is dangerous, because
several hours after almost all missiles have been
launched the first enemy bombers may strike. Cities
and other targets that have been spared because
missiles malfunctioned or missed are likely to be
destroyed by nuclear bombs dropped during the first
several days after the first attack.

Most people should stay inside their shelters for
at least two or three days, even if they are in a locality
far from a probable target and even if fallout meter
readings prove there is no dangerous fallout.
Exceptions would include some of the people who
would need to improve shelters or move to better
shelters. Such persons could do so at relatively small
risk during the interval between the ICBM explosions
and the arrival of enemy bombers and/or the start of
fallout deposition a few hours later.

Fallout would cover most of the United States
within 12 hours after a massive attack. People could
rarely depend on information received from distant
radio stations regarding changing fallout dangers and
advising when and for how long they could go outside
their shelters. Weather conditions such as wind speed
would cause fallout dangers to vary with distance. If
not forced by thirst or hunger to leave shelter, they
should depend on their own fallout meter readings or
on radiation measurements made by neighbors or local
civil defense workers.

HOW TO KEEP RADIOS OPERATING

Having a radio to receive emergency broadcasts
would be a great advantage. The stations that would
still be on the air after an attack would probably be
too distant from most survivors to give them reliable
information concerning local, constantly changing
fallout dangers. However, both morale and the
prospects of long-range survival would be improved
in shelters with a radio bringing word of the large-
area fallout situation, food-relief measures, practical
survival skills, and what the government and other
organizations were doing to help. Radio contact with
the outside world probably can be maintained after
an attack if you remember to:

• Bring all of your family’s battery-powered,
portable radios with you to shelter, along with all
fresh batteries on hand.

• Protect AM radios by using only their built-in
short loop antennas. The built-in antennas of small
portable radios are too short for EMP to induce
damaging surges of current in them.

• Keep antennas of FM, CB. and amateur radios
as short as practical, preferably less than 10 inches.
When threatened by EMP, a danger that may con-
tinue for weeks after the initial attack because of
repeated, high-altitude explosions, do not add a wire
antenna or connect a short radio antenna to a pipe.
Remember that a surge of current resulting from
EMP especially can damage drodes and transistors,
thus ending a radio’s usefulness or reducing its range
of reception.

• Keep all unshielded radios at least six feet away
from any long piece of metal, such as pipes, metal
ducts, or wires found in many basements and other

shelters. Long metal conductors can pick up and
carry large EMP surges, causing induced current
to surge in nearby radios and damage them.

• Shield each radio against EMP when not in use
by completely surrounding it with conducting metal
if it is kept within six feet of a long conductor through
which powerful currents produced by EMP might
surge. A radio may be shielded against EMP by
placing it inside a metal cake box or metal storage
can, or by completely surrounding it with aluminum
foil or metallic window screen.

• Disconnect the antenna cable of your car radio
at the receiver — or at least ground the antenna when
not in use by connecting it with a wire to the car
frame. Use tape or clothespins to assure good metal-
to-metal contact. The metal of an outside mirror is
a convenient grounding-point. Park your car as near
to your shelter as practical, so that after fallout
has decayed sufficiently you may be able to use
the car radio to get distant stations that are still
broadcasting.

• Prevent possible damage to a radio from ex-
treme dampness (which may result from long
occupancy of some belowground shelters) by keep-
ing it sealed in a clear plastic bag large enough so
the radio can be operated while inside. An additional
precaution is to keep a plastic-covered radio in an
air-tight container with some anhydrite made from
wallboard gypsum, as described in Appendix C.

• Conserve batteries, because after an attack you
may not be able to get replacements for months.
Listen only periodically, to the stations you find give
the most useful information. The batteries of
transistor radios will last up to twice as long if the
radios are played at reduced volume.

Chapter 4
Evacuation

CHANGED EVACUATION REQUIREMENTS

The most threatening Soviet nuclear war-
heads in the mid-1970s were multi-megaton,
such as single warheads of approximately 20
megatons carried by each of over 250 SS-18s.
About half of these huge Russian warheads
would have hit within a quarter of a mile or less
of their intended targets — close enough to
destroy a missile in its hardened silo. Today’s
improved Russian warheads have a 50-50 proba-
bility of hitting within a few hundred feet of their
aiming points. With such accuracy, multi-
megaton warheads are not needed to destroy
very hard targets, especially missiles in their
blast-protective silos.

Soviet strategy continues to stress the de-
struction of military targets, in order to mini-
mize Russian losses from retaliatory strikes.
This logical, long-established Soviet strategy is
emphasized in numerous authoritative Russian
books, including the three editions of Soviet
Military Strategy, by Marshall of the Soviet Union
V. D. Sokolovskiy.

One result of this logical strategy has been
the replacement of huge Soviet warheads by
numerous, much smaller, much more accurate
warheads. In 1990 almost all large missiles
have several Multiple Independently-targetted
Reentry Vehicles (MIRVed) warheads. Soviet
warheads — especially the 10 warheads of
500 kilotons each carried by most SS-18s —
could destroy almost all important U.S. fixed
military installations, and also almost all U.S.
command and control facilities, airport runways
longer than 7,000 feet, major seaports, and the
factories and refineries that are the basis of our
military power. (Although an all-out Soviet
attack could destroy almost all missile silos
and missiles in them, a first-strike attack is
deterred in part by the possibility that most U.S.
missiles in silos would be launched on warning
and would be in space, on their trajectories
toward Russian targets, before Soviet warheads
could reach their silos.)

How should your plans either to evacuate
during a worsening crisis, or to remain in your
home area, be influenced by the dramatic
changes in' the Soviet nuclear arsenal? Some of
these changes are indicated by Fig. 4.1, that
incorporates information on the dimensions of
the stabilized clouds of one megaton and 200
kiloton explosions, from reference 6, 'Die Effects
of Nuclear Weapons, 1977, and similar information
on a 20-megaton cloud derived from a graph on
page 20 of The Effects on the Atmosphere of a Major
Nuclear Exchange, by the Committee on the At-
mospheric Effects of Nuclear Explosions, Na-
tional Research Council, National Academy
Press, Washington, D.C. 1985. (This NRC graph
is based on Ballistic Missile Organization 83-5
Part 1, dated 29 September 1983, a report that is
not generally available.)

The air bursting of one of the probably few
20-megaton warheads carried by Soviet ICBMs
would destroy typical American homes up to
about 16 miles from ground zero. In contrast, the
air bursting of an approximately 1-megaton
warhead — one of the large warheads in today’s
Soviet arsenal — would destroy most homes
within a roughly circular area having a radius
of “only" about 5 miles. So, if you take into
consideration the advantages to Soviets of
arming their largest ICBMs with several very
accurate smaller warheads, each capable of
destroying a militarily important target, you
may logically conclude that unless your home
is closer than 10 miles from the nearest probable
target, you need not evacuate to avoid blast and
fire dangers.

Your planning to avoid incapacitating or
fatal exposure to fallout radiation will involve
more uncertainties than will your plans to avoid
blast and fire dangers. The high altitude winds
that carry fallout farthest before deposition
usually blow from west to east. Therefore, in
most areas your chances of avoiding extreme-
ly dangerous radiation dangers are improved if

28

Fig. 4.1. Stabilized radioactive fallout clouds shown a few minutes after air-burst
explosions, with distances from Ground Zeros at which the wood frames of typical
homes are almost completely collapsed. The clouds from surface or near-surface bursts
are almost as large, but the distances of blast damage are reduced by around 38 percent.

you evacuate westward to an area away from
likely nearby targets. However, since no one
can foretell with certainty in what directions
future winds will blow, your plans to remain
where you live, or your crisis evacuation plans
should include building, improving, or utilizing
high-protection-factor shelter, as explained in
following chapters.

If you live near a target the destruction of
which has high priority in Soviet war-winning
strategy, then a decade or so ago it quite likely
was targetted by a 20-MT warhead. Fig. 4.1
shows the awesome size of the stabilized radio-
active cloud from a 20-MT air burst. This cloud
would expand in minutes to this huge size in the
thin air of the stratosphere, would contain only
extremely small particles almost all of which
would remain airborne for weeks to years, and
would result in no fallout deposition that would
promptly incapacitate exposed people.

A 20-MT surface burst or near-surface burst

would produce a stabilized radioactive cloud
extending almost as far in all directions from

GZ as would a 20-MT air burst. Its tremendous
fireball would “suck up” millions of tons of
pulverized rock and would contaminate those
particles with its radioactive material. Fallout
particles as big as marbles 6 would fall from the
stabilized cloud to the ground in minutes. Very
heavy fallout could be deposited as far as 18
miles upwind from such a 20-MT explosion,
with heavy fallout, capable of causing fatalities
within days to weeks, extending downwind for
several hundred miles.

A 1-MT surface burst. Fig. 4.1, would produce
a stabilized fallout cloud unlikely to result in
fallout being deposited in the upwind or cross-
wind directions from GZ beyond the range of the
explosion's home-destroying blast effects.
Clearly, the risk of your being endangered by
very heavy fallout if you remain 6 miles from
GZ of a 1-MT surface burst, and happen to be
upwind or crosswind from GZ, is less than the
risk you would have run a decade ago if you had
stayed 18 miles upwind or crosswind from the
same target, which had been destroyed by a 20-
MT surface or near-surface burst.

HEIGHT IN MILES

29

HIGHEST-RISK AND HIGH-RISK AREAS

Highest-risk areas are those in which build-
ings are likely to be destroyed by blast and/or
fire, and/or where a person in the open for the
first two weeks after fallout deposition would
receive a total radiation dose of 10,000 R or
more. The largest highest-risk areas would be
those within our five Minuteman missile fields,
within a few miles all around them, and for up to
about 150 miles downwind. These huge highest-
risk areas are indicated by five of the largest
black fallout patterns on Fig. 4.2.

Fig. 4.2 is an oudated, computer-drawn
fallout map based on a multi-megaton attack
considered credible 10 years ago. (An updated,
unclassified fallout map of the United States,
showing radiation doses to persons in the open,
is not available.) This outdated attack included
113 surface bursts of 20 megatons each on urban
and industrial targets, an unlikely assumption
similar to those used in making some official
civil defense risk-area maps that assumed sur-
face bursts on all targets nationwide. Employing
all surface bursts makes little sense to the
military, because air bursting the same weapons
would destroy most military installations, as
well as factories and other urban and industrial
assets, over approximately twice as large an
area.

As will be explained later, to survive in such
areas people would have to stay inside very good
shelters for several weeks, or, after two weeks or more,
leave very good shelters and drive in a few hours to an
area relatively free of fallout dangers. A “very good”
fallout shelter is one that reduces the radiation dose
received by its occupants to less than 1/ 200th of the
dose they would have received outdoors during the
same period. If the two-week dose outdoors were
20.000 R. such a shelter with a protection factor of 200
( PF200) would prevent each occupant from receiving a
dose greater than 100 R — not enough to incapacitate.
Even a completely belowground home basement,
unless greatly improved as described in Chapter 5,
would give entirely inadequate protection.

High-risk fallout areas are those where the two-
week dose outdoors is between 5,000 and 10,000 R. In
such areas, good fallout shelters would be essential,
supplied at least with adequate water and baby food for
two weeks. Furthermore, survivors would have to
remain inside shelters for most of each day for several
additional weeks.

The radiation dangers in the shaded areas of the
map are shown decreasing as the distances from the
explosions increase. This generally is the case, although
sometimes rain or snow carries radioactive particles to
the ground, producing “rainouts" of exceptionally
heavy fallout farther downwind. Furthermore, this
computer-drawn map made at Oak Ridge National
Laboratory does not indicate the very dangerous

fallout near the isolated surface bursts. Although the
most dangerous tallout would be carried by high-
altitude winds that usually blow from west to east, such
simplified fallout patterns as those shown should be
used only as rough guides to help improve chances of
evacuating a probable blast area or very heavy fallout
area and going to a less dangerous area. Wind
directions arc undependable; an enemy’s targeting can
be unexpected; weapons can miss. A prudent citizen,
no matter where he is. should try to build a shelter that
gives excellent protection against fallout radiation.

A major disadvantage of all types of risk-area
maps is the fact that poorly informed people often
misinterpret them and conclude that if they are outside
a mapped risk area, they are relatively safe from blast,
fire, and even deadly fallout dangers.

Another reason for not placing much re-
liance on risk-area maps like Fig. 4.2 is that
such unclassified maps available in 1986 are
based on the largest attacks considered possible
a decade ago. In 1986 the sizes of Soviet warheads
are much smaller, their numbers are much
larger, and their total megatonage and capa-
bility to produce fallout remain about the same
as 10 years ago.

The outdated attack scenario used in pro-
ducing Fig. 4.2 also involved the surface burst-
ing of multi-megaton warheads totaling 3,190
megatons on military targets, including over
2,000 megatons logically surface bursted on our
five Minuteman missile fields. Such an attack
on our missile fields would produce about the
same amount of fallout as is shown in Fig. 4.2.
Today, however, heavy fallout from our missile
fields would extend somewhat shorter distances
downwind, because of the lower heights of the
stabilized radioactive clouds from one-megaton
and smaller surface and near-surface bursts, as
compared to those of multi-megaton warheads
that would have been exploded 10 years ago, at a
time when a 20-megaton warhead was typical of
the Soviet nuclear ICBM arsenal.

In 1986 hundreds of targets besides those
indicated in Fig. 4.2 might be hit, but the total
area of the United States subjected to lethal fall-
out probably would be less than is shown in Fig.
4.2. To maximize areas of destruction by blast
and fire, most targets in urban and/or industrial
areas would be attacked with air bursts, which
would produce little or no promptly lethal or
incapacitating fallout — except perhaps in scat-
tered "hot spots” where rain-outs or snow-outs
could bring huge numbers of tiny, very radio-
active particles to earth within hours after the
air bursting of today’s kiloton-range Soviet war-
heads. And since most Americans live far away
from "hard" targets — especially far from mis-
sile silos, downwind from which extremely
heavy fallout is likely — most of us living in or
near high-risk areas probably would be en-
dangered primarily by blast and fire, not fallout,
in the event of a Soviet attack.

ORNL-DWG 78 — H0305R

Fig. 4.2. Simplified, outdated fallout patterns showing total radiation doses that would be received by persons
on the surface and in the open for the entire 14 days following the surface bursting of 5050 megatons on the targets
indicated, if the winds at all elevations blew continuously from the west at 25 mph.

WHETHER TO EVACUATE

Let’s assume that Russian cities were being
evacuated, or that tactical nuclear weapons
were beginning to be used in what had been an
overseas conventional war involving the United
States. In such a worsening crisis, most Ameri-
cans could improve their survival chances by
getting out of the highest-risk and high-risk
areas.

U.S. capabilities for war-crisis evacuation
are poor and tending to worsen. Several years
ago, out of the approximately 3,100 evacuation
plans required nationwide, about 1,500 had been
made, and these involved only about one third of
Americans living in risk areas. By 1986 some
cities and states had abandoned their war-crisis
evacuation plans; most still have plans that
would save millions if ordered in time during a
crisis lasting at least a few days and completed
before the attack. Who would order an evacuation
under threat of attack, and under what circum-
stances, remain unanswered questions. Further-
more. compulsory evacuation during a war
crisis was not and is not part of any official
American evacuation plan. So, if you believe
that a nuclear attack on the United States is
possible and want to improve your chances of
surviving, then well before a desperate crisis
arises you had better either make preparations
to improve your and your family’s survival
chances at or near where you live, or plan and
prepare to evacuate.

Spontaneous evacuations, in which Ameri-
cans would make their own decisions without
the authorities having recommended any move-
ment, probably would occur during a worsening
war crisis. Traffic jams and other complications
are less likely to occur if citizens start leaving
high-risk areas on their own, over a period of
several hours to a few days, rather than if
almost everyone, on receiving recommenda-
tions from officials, at once begins a poorly
controlled evacuation. (Spontaneous evacuation
by Gulf Coast residents, begun under threat of
an approaching hurricane, have lessened sub-

sequent traffic problems in the evacuations
ordered or recommended by officials several
hours later.)

Except in areas where the local civil defense
war-crisis evacuation plans are well developed,
most Americans living farther than 10 miles
from the nearest probable separate target prob-
ably can best improve their chances of surviving
a nuclear attack by preparing to remain at or
near their homes and there to make or improve
good shelters. Exceptions include those living
in the vicinity of targets of great military
importance to the Soviets — especially our
missile fields, on which many warheads would
be surface or near-surface bursted, producing
extremely heavy fallout for up to 150 miles
downwind. Americans living in these greatly
endangered areas would do well to make their
plans in keeping with the local official civil
defense evacuation plans, at least regarding
directions and distances to localities not likely
to be endangered by heavy fallout.

Nuclear submarine ports. Strategic Air
Command bases, and Air Force installations
with long runways also would be destroyed by
even a limited Soviet counterforce or disarming
attack. These prime strategic assets are likely
to be blasted by Submarine Launched Ballistic
Missiles (SLBMs) in the first 15 or 20 minutes of
the war. SLBM warheads are not as accurate as
ICBM warheads, and air bursts can destroy
bombers and submarines in port over about
twice as large areas as if these same weapons
are exploded at or near the surface. Therefore,
SLBM warheads probably would be air bursted
on these prime “soft” targets, with little or no
local fallout. (In an all-out Soviet attack, hours
later long runways are likely to be cratered by
accurate ICBM warheads and by bombs, to
make sure our returning bombers could not use
them.)

On the following page are listed considera-
tions, favorable and unfavorable, to evacuation.
These comparative lists may help you and your
family make a more logical decision regarding
evacuation:

Favorable to Evacuation:

* You live in a highest-risk or high-risk
area.

* You have transportation (this means a car
and enough gasoline), and roads are open to a
considerably lower-risk area.

* You are in fairly good health or can
evacuate with someone capable of taking care of
you.

* Your work is not of the kind that your
community depends on (such as a policeman, fire-
man, or telephone operator).

* You have some tools with which to build or im-
prove a fallout shelter. You also have water con-
tainers. food, clothing, etc., adequate for life in the
area to which you would go.

Unfavorable to Evacuation:

* You live outside a highest-risk or high-risk
area and could build an expedient fallout shelter
and make other survival preparations where you
live.

* You have no means of transportation or
you believe that roads are likely to be blocked
by the time you make your decision.

* You are sick, decrepit, or lack the will to try
to survive if things get tough.

* You cannot suddenly leave your home area
for several days without hurting others.

* You lack the tools, etc., that would be
helpful — but not necessarily essential— to success-
ful evacuation.

Instructions for building expedient fallout and
blast shelters and for making expedient life-support
equipment are given in following chapters. The
reader is advised to study all of this book carefully
before making up his mind regarding basic survival
action.

THE NEED FOR AN
EVACUATION CHECKLIST

A good flyer, no matter how many years he has
flown, runs through a checklist covering his plane
before taking off. Similarly, a citizen preparing under
crisis pressures to do something he has never done
before — evacuate— should use a checklist to be sure
that he takes with him the most useful of his available
possessions.

A family planning to use an expedient shelter or
basement .at or near home also should use the
Evacuation Checklist on the following page to make
sure needed survival items are not overlooked.

The family of six pictured in Fig. 4.3 used the
Evacuation Checklist given below to select the most
useful things that could be carried in and on their
small car. They assembled categories of items in
separate piles, then selected some items to take with
them from each pile. They were able to leave their
home 76 minutes after receiving the Evacuation
Checklist. (Following chapters of this book include
descriptions of this family’s success in evacuating,
building a Pole-Covered Trench Shelter, and living in
it continuously for 77 hours.)

EVACUATION CHECKLIST
Includes items for building or improving shelters)

Loading Procedure: Make separate piles for
ach category (except categories 1 and 5). Then load
ne car with some items from each category, taking
s much as can be safely carried and being careful
o leave room for all passengers.

V THE MOST NEEDED ITEMS

Category 1. Survival Information: Shelter-
building and other nuclear survival
instructions, maps, all available
small battery-powered radios and
extra batteries, a fallout meter such
as a homemade KFM (see Appen-
dix C), and writing materials.

Category 2. Tools: Shovel, pick, saw (a bow-
saw is hest), ax or hatchet, file,
knife, pliers, and any other tools
specified in the building instruc-
tions for the shelter planned. Also
take work gloves.

Category 3. Shelter- Building Materials: Rain-
proofing materials (plastic, shower
curtains, cloth, etc.) as specified in
the instructions for the type of
shelter planned. Also, unless the
weather is very cold, a homemade
shelter-ventilating pump such as a
K.AP, or the materials to build one
(see Appendix B).

Category 4. Water: Small, filled containers plus
all available large polyethylene trash
bags, smaller plastic bags and pillow
cases, water-purifying material such
as Clorox, and a teaspoon for
measuring.

Category 5. Peacetime valuables: Money, credit
cards, negotiable securities, valuable
jewelry, checkbooks, and the most
important documents kept at home.
(Evacuation may be followed
not by nuclear war, but by con-
tinuing unstable nuclear peace.)

Category 6. Light: Flashlights, candles, mate-
rials to improvise cooking-oil lamps
(2 clear glass jars of about 1-pint
size, cooking oil, cotton string for
w icks (see Chapter 1 1, Light), kitchen
matches, and a moisture-proof jar
for storing matches.

Category 7. Clothing: Cold-weather boots, over-
shoes, and warm outdoor cloth-
ing (even in summer, since after
an attack these would be unobtain-
able), raincoats and ponchos. Wear
work clothes and work shoes.

Category 8. Sleeping Gear: A compact sleeping
bag or two blankets per person.

Category 9. Food: Food for babies (including
milk powder, cooking oil, and
sugar) has the highest priority.
Compact foods that require no
cooking are preferred. Include at
least one pound of salt, available
vitamins, a can and bottle opener,
a knife, and 2 cooking pots with
lids (4-qt size preferred). For each
person: one cup, bowl, and large
spoon. Also, a bucket stove, or
minimum materials for making a
bucket stove; a metal bucket, 10 all-
wire coat hangers, a nail, and a cold
chisel or screwdriver (see Chapter 9,
Food).

Category 10. Sanitation Items: Plastic film or
plastic bags in which to collect and
contain excrement; a bucket or
' plastic container for urine; toilet
paper, tampons, diapers, and soap.

Category 11. Medical Items: Aspirin, a first-aid
kit, all available antibiotics and
disinfectants, special prescription
medicines (if essential to a member
of the family), potassium iodide (for
protection against radioactive io-
dine, see Chapter 13), spare eye-
glasses, and contact lenses.

Category 12. Miscellaneous: Two square yards
of mosquito netting or insect screen
with which to screen the shelter
openings if insects are a problem,
insect repellents, a favorite book or
two.

B. SOME USEFUL ITEMS (To take if car space is

available):

1. Additional tools.

2. A tent, a small camp stove, and some
additional kitchen utensils.

Fig. 4.3. Six members of a Utah family arriving at a rural shelter-building site 64 miles from their
urban home.

EVACUATING BY CAR

The small car shown in Fig. 4.3 was skillfully
loaded for a safe evacuation trip. To make room for
supplies, the back seat was left at home. The load
on top of the car included blankets, a small rug, and
a small tent — all made of springy materials which
kept the load from becoming compacted and working
loose under the 1/ 4-inch nylon ropes tightened
around it. The two loop-ended ropes went over the load
and around the top of the car, passing over the tops of
the closed doors.

USING MUSCLE POWER

Hazards of evacuation would include highways
blocked by wrecks and stalled vehicles. If leadership
and know-how were provided, the muscle power
of people usually could quickly clear a highway.
During a major Chinese evacuation before advancing
Japanese armies in World War II, I observed
Chinese, using only muscle power, quickly clear
a mountain road of wrecks and other obstructions.
Americans can do the same, if someone convinces

them that they can do it, as proved by a wintertime
episode on Monarch Pass over the Continental
Divide in Colorado. At least 100 vehicles were held
up after a large wrecking truck overturned on the
icy highway. The patrolmen were doing nothing until
I told them how the Chinese handled such a situation.
The patrolmen then called for volunteers from
among the delayed motorists to lift the overturned
truck back onto its wheels. In less than 15 minutes,
about 50 people had combined their muscle power
and opened Monarch Pass to traffic.

Citizens should take direct action to keep traffic
moving during a crisis evacuation.

MAKING AN EXPEDIENT OR
PERMANENT SHELTER INSTEAD OF
EVACUATING

Millions of Americans have homes within very
large urban-industrial areas, probably not all of which
would be subjected to blast and fire dangers.
Many, whose homes are in the suburbs or ad-
jacent towns in these metropolitan areas, could

logically decide not to evacuate, but to build earth-
covered shelters at or very near their homes and to
supply them with life-support essentials. Likewise,
people living even as close as 5 miles from an
isolated probable target may decide to build a
good shelter near their supplies, rather than to
evacuate. This is a good idea, provided that (1) their
homes are far enough away from probable aiming
points to make such shelters practical, and (2) enough
time, space, tools, materials, and supplies are available.

The photo (Fig. 4.4) shows a family with no adult
male that built an expedient shelter that would give far
better fallout, blast, and fire protection than almost any
home. They succeeded, despite the necessity of working
on cold November days with snow flurries. The top two
inches of earth were frozen and the next two feet so dry
that most of it had to be loosened with their dull pick.
No member of this family had done any serious digging
before, yet they built a shelter that would have given
about 100 times as much protection against fallout
radiation as would a typical small frame house and at
least 25 times as much as a typical home basement.

(Fallout shelters are designed for protection against
radiation from fallout particles. Although fallout shel-
ters lack blast doors and other means for keeping out
blast, the better types would prevent their occupants
from being killed by blast effects in extensive areas
where people in houses would have little chance of
surviving. In this book, an “expedient shelter” generally
means an expedient fallout shelter.)

Even as simple an earth-covered fallout
shelter as this Door-Covered Trench Shelter, if
built well separated from flammable buildings,
usually would save its occupants’ lives in ex-
tensive areas devastated by blast and/or fire.
The area of probable survival in a good earth-
covered fallout shelter would extend from where
blast damage would be light but fires likely to be
numerous, inward toward GZ to where most
homes would be collapsed by blast and/or de-
stroyed by fire. This ring-shaped area of prob-
able survival from blast and/or fire effects of a
1-MT air burst would extend from about 8 miles
from GZ inward to approximately 5.5 miles. Its
area would be about 105 square miles, more
than the 95 square miles in the circular area
with a radius of 5.5 miles centered on GZ and
within which this simple a shelter probably
would be collapsed by the blast overpressure of
a 1-MT air burst. (Door-Covered Trench Shelters
and most of the other types of earth-covered
expedient shelters described in this book have

Fig. 4.4. This family completed their Pro-
tection Factor 200 (PF 200) fallout shelter, a
Door-Covered Trench Shelter with 2 feet of
earth on its roof, 34 hours after receiving the
building instructions at their home.

been proven dependable in test explosions con-
ducted by the Defense Nuclear Agency.)

In many areas, this and even better types of
expedient fallout shelters affording considerable blast
protection could be built by untrained families, follow-
ing the written, field-tested instructions in this book.
Furthermore (as shown in Appendix D, Expedient
Blast Shelters) within a few days a small but significant
fraction of the population could build expedient blast
shelters complete with expedient blast doors and
providing at least 15-psi blast protection.

Chapter 5

Shelter, the Greatest Need

ADEQUATE SHELTER

To improve your chances of surviving a nuclear
attack, your primary need would be an adequate
shelter equipped for many days of occupancy. A
shelter that affords good protection against fallout
radiation and weather would be adequate in more
than 95% of the area of the United States. However,
even in almost all areas not endangered by blast and
fire during a massive nuclear attack, the fallout
protection provided by most existing buildings would
not be adequate if the winds blew from the wrong
direction during the time of fallout deposition.

To remain in or near cities or other probable
target areas, one would need better protection against
blast, fire, and fallout than is provided by most
shelters in buildings. Blast tests have proved that the
earth-covered expedient fallout shelters described in
this book can survive blast effects severe enough to
demolish most homes.'

This chapter is concerned primarily with
expedient shelters that give excellent protection
against fallout radiation. These earth-covered fallout
shelters could be built in 48 hours or less by tens of
millions of Americans following field-tested, written
instructions. 8 Expedient blast shelters are discussed
in Appendix D. The special blast doors and other
design features needed for effective blast protection
require more work, materials, and skill than are
needed for expedient fallout shelters.

If average Americans are to do their best when
building expedient shelters and life-support equip-
ment for themselves, they need detailed information
about what to do and about why it is to their
advantage to do it. We are not a people accustomed

to blindly following orders. Unfortunately, during a
crisis threatening nuclear war, it would take too long
to read instructions explaining why each important
feature was designed as specified. Therefore, only a
few reasons are included in the step-by-step,
illustrated instructions given in Appendix A for
building 6 types of earth-covered expedient shelters
during a crisis.

In this chapter, reasons will be given for design-
ing a Pole-Covered Trench Shelter as specified in the
Oak Ridge National Laboratory instructions given
in Appendix A.2. The two pages of drawings and
plans given at the end of Appendix A. 2 show the parts
of this ' shelter, except for the essential shelter-
ventilating pump installed in its entrance trench. The
following account of how an urban family, after
evacuating, used these instructions to build such a
shelter in less than 36 hours also includes
explanations of various radiation dangers and of
simple means to build protection against these
dangers.

This family, like scores of other families
recruited to build shelters or life-support equipment,
was offered a sum about equivalent to laborers’ wages
if its members completed the experiment within a
specified time. The test period began the moment the
family received the written, illustrated instructions
preparatory to evacuating by car, as mentioned in the
preceding chapter. Like the other test families, this
family was paid for all of its materials used. If a family
worked hard and completed the project in half the
specified time, it was paid a cash bonus. Throughout
such tests workers were guided only by the written
instructions, which were improved after each
successive test.

The successful outcome of almost all the shelter-
building experiments indicates that tens of millions of
Americans in a nuclear war crisis would work hard
and successfully to build earth-covered expedient
shelters that would give them better protection
against fallout, blast, and fire than would all but a
very small fraction of existing buildings. However,
this belief is dependent on two conditions: (1) that in a
desperate, worsening crisis our country’s highest
officials would supply strong, motivating leadership;
and (2) that Americans would have received — well in
advance — shelter-building and other practical, tested
survival instructions.

SHELTER AGAINST RADIATION

The family previously pictured evacuating by car
(Fig. 4.3) drove 64 miles to build a shelter at the site
shown in Fig. 5. 1 . Although the August sun was very
hot in this irrigated Utah valley, the family members
did not build in the shade of nearby trees. To avoid
digging through roots, they carried the poles about
150 feet and dug their trench near the edge of the
cornfield.

The father and the oldest son did most of the
work of making the shelter. The mother and second

son had health problems; the two youngest children
were not accustomed to work.

The family followed an earlier version of the
plans and instructions given in Appendix A for
building a Pole-Covered Trench Shelter. Because the
earth was firm and stable, the trenches were dug with
vertical walls. If the earth had been less stable, it
would have been necessary to slope the walls —
increasing the width at the top of the main trench
from 3 Vs to 5 feet.

Before placing the roof poles, the workers
assured themselves a more comfortable shelter by
covering the trench walls. They had brought a large
number of the plastic garbage bags required in their
home community and split some bags open to make
wall coverings. Bed sheets or other cloth could have
been used.

The room of this 6-person shelter was 3 V 2 feet
wide, 4 V 2 feet high, and 16% feet long. A small stand-
up hole was dug at one end, so each tall occupant
could stand up and stretch several times a day.

The trenches for entry and emergency exit were
dug only 22 inches wide, to minimize radiation
entering the shelter through these openings. One wall
of these two narrow trenches was an extension of the

Fig. 5.1. Placing 9-foot poles for the roof of a Pole-Covered Trench Shelter.

room wall shown on the right in Fig. 5.1. The family
sat and slept along the left wall, to be better shielded
from radiation coming through the openings.

This shelter was designed so that its main trench
could be enlarged to make a much more livable room
without disturbing its completed roof. For this
reason, the 9-foot roofing poles were placed off-
center, with the two extra feet resting on the ground
to the right of the main room.

Whenever practical, expedient shelters should
be built so that they can be readily enlarged to make
semi-permanent living quarters. After it becomes safe
to emerge for limited periods, occupants could sleep
and spend much of their waking time in such a
rainproof dugout that affords excellent protection
against continuing radiation. In cold weather, living
in a dugout like this is more comfortable than living
in a tent or shack. After the fallout radiation dose rate
outdoors has decayed to less than about 2 R per hour,
the small vertical entry could be enlarged and
converted to a steeply inclined stairway.

The importance of giving inexperienced shelter
builders detailed instructions is illustrated by the
unnecessary work done by the young women shown
in Fig. 5.2. They had agreed to try to build a Pole-
Covered Trench. Shelter, working unassisted and
using only hand tools. Because the summer sun in
Utah was hot, they selected a shady site under a large
tree. The brief instructions they received included no
advice on the selection of a building site. Cutting and
digging out the numerous roots was very difficult for
them and required several of the 22 hours they spent
actually working.

Another disadvantage of making a shelter under
trees is that more of the gamma rays from fallout
particles on the leaves and branches would reach and
penetrate the shelter than if these same particles were
on the ground. Many gamma rays from fallout
particles on the ground would be scattered or
absorbed by striking rocks, clods of earth, tree
trunks, or houses before reaching a belowground
shelter.

Fig. 5.2. Two non-athletic college girls who completed a 4-person Pole-Covered Trench Shelter in 35/2
hours, despite tree roots.

TYPES OF SHIELDING

Shelters provide protection against radiation by
utilizing two types of shielding: barrier shielding and
geometry shielding.

• Barrier shielding is shown by Fig. 5.3, a
simplified illustration. (In a real fallout area, a man in
an open trench would have fallout particles all over
and around him.) The 3-foot thickness of earth
shown (or a 2-foot thickness of concrete) will provide
an effective barrier, attenuating (absorbing) about
99.9% of all gamma rays from fallout. (In the
illustration, only a single fallout particle 3 feet from
the edge of the trench is considered.) Only one
gamma ray out of 1000 could penetrate the 3 feet of
earth shown and strike the person in the trench. Rays
from particles farther away than 3 feet would be
negligible; rays from particles closer than 3 feet would
be attenuated according to the thickness of earth
between the fallout particle and the man in the trench.

However, the man in the trench would not be
protected from “skyshine,” which is caused by
gamma rays scattering after striking the nitrogen,
oxygen, and other atoms of the air. The man’s
exposed head, which is just below ground level,
would be hit by about one-tenth as many gamma rays

as if it were 3 feet above ground (Fig. 5.3). Even if all
fallout could be kept out of the trench and off the man
and every part of the ground within 3 feet of the edges
of the trench, skyshine from heavy fallout on the
surrounding ground could deliver a fatal radiation
dose to the man in the open trench.

Skyshine reaches the ground from all directions.
If the man were sitting in a deeper trench, he would
escape more of this scattered radiation, but not all of
it. For good protection he must be protected
overhead and on all sides by barrier shielding.

The barrier shielding of the Pole-Covered
Trench Shelter shown in Fig. 5.4 was increased by
shoveling additional earth onto its “buried roof.”
After father and son had mounded earth about 18
inches deep over the centerline of the roof poles, a
large piece of 4-mil-thick polyethylene was placed
over the mound. This waterproof material served as a
“buried roof” after it was covered with more earth.
Any rainwater trickling through the earth above the
plastic would have run off the sloping sides of the
“buried roof’ and away from the shelter.

• Geometry shielding reduces the radiation dose
received by shelter occupants by increasing the
distances between them and fallout particles, and by

ORNL-OWG 78-7206

Fig. 5.3. Simplified illustration of barrier shielding and skyshine (scattered gamma radiation). An open
trench provides poor protection.

Fig. 5.4. Increasing the barrier shielding over a Pole-Covered Trench Shelter.

providing turns in the openings leading into the
shelter. Figure 5.5 is a sectional drawing of the shelter
entry built by the Utah family.

The farther you can keep away from a source
either of light or of harmful radiation, the less light or
other radiation will reach you. If fallout particles are
on the roof of a tall building and you are in the
basement, you will receive a much smaller radiation
dose from those particles than if they were on the
floor just above you. Likewise, if either visible light or
gamma rays are coming through an opening at the far
end of a passageway, less will reach you at the other
end if the passageway is long than if it is short.

Turns in passageways are very effective in
reducing the amount of radiation entering a shelter
through them. A right-angle turn, either from a
vertical or horizontal entry, causes a reduction of
about 90%.

Note: Fallout shelters need not provide additional
shielding to protect occupants against initial nuclear
radiation that is emitted from the fireballs of nuclear
explosions. (See Figs. 1.1 and 1.4.) Large nuclear
weapons would be employed in an attack on the United
States. The initial nuclear radiation from the
sizes of explosions that may endanger Amer-

icans would be greatly reduced in passing
through the miles of air between the fireballs
and those fallout shelters far enough away to
survive the blast effects. The smaller an explo-
sion, the larger the dose of initial nuclear
radiation it delivers at a given blast overpres-
sure distance from ground zero. (Fora discussion
of the more difficult shielding requirements of blast
shelters that would enable occupants to survive blast
effects much closer to explosions and therefore would
be subjected to much larger exposures of initial nuclear
radiation, see Appendix D, Expedient Blast Shelters.)

Figure 5.6 shows the completed shelter after it
was occupied by the family of six just 32 % hours after
receiving the shelter-building instructions and
beginning preparations to evacuate. (This family won
a bonus for completion within 36 hours and also a
larger bonus given if all members then stayed inside
continuously for at least 72 hours.) To get a better
idea of how six people can live in such a small shelter,
look at the drawings at the end of Appendix A. 2.
In warm or hot weather, shelters, especially
crowded ones, must be well ventilated and cooled by
an adequate volume of outdoor air pumped through
them. This family had built an efficient homemade air
pump (a KAP) and used it as described in Chapter 6
and Appendix B.

ORNL-OWG 78-7204

ENTRY TRENCH

SHELTER ROOM

THRESHOLD BOARD

FLOOR OF SHELTER

Fig. 5.5. Skyshine coming into a shelter through a vertical entry would be mostly absorbed while turning
into and traveling down the entryway trench.

Fig. 5.6. Earth mounded over a 372-foot-wide Pole-Covered Trench Shelter. The canvas canopy would
protect the vertical entry against both fallout and rain. (A smaller canopy over the air duct-emergency exit at the
other end is obscured by the mounded earth.)

All of the earth excavated in digging the trenches
was mounded over the roof poles, making a covering
30 inches deep. This shelter had a protection factor
(PF) of over 300; that is, persons inside would receive
less than 1/ 300th of the gamma-ray dose of fallout
radiation that they would receive if they were
standing outside in the open.

To have made the roof covering more than 36
inches thick would not have increased the protection
against radiation very much, unless the entry trench
and the air duct-emergency exit trench had been dug
considerably longer. Field tests have shown that
some families, given only 48 hours, cannot dig the
longer trenches, cut the additional poles, and shovel
on the additional earth necessary for a shelter that
would offer significantly better protection than the
shelter shown here. The Pole-Covered Trench Shelter
and the other shelters described in Appendix A all
have been built by untrained families within 48 hours,
the minimum time assumed to be available to
Americans before a possible attack if the Russians
should begin tq evacuate their cities.

EARTH ARCHING USED TO
STRENGTHEN SHELTERS

Several types of expedient shelters can be made
to withstand greater pressures if their roofs are built
of yielding materials and covered with enough earth

to attain “earth arching.” This arching results when
the yielding of the roof causes part of the load carried
by the roof to be shifted to the overlying earth
particles, which become rearranged in such a way
that an arch is formed. This arch carries the load to
surrounding supports that are less yielding. These
supports often include adjacent earth that has not
been disturbed.

To attain earth arching, the earth covering the
yielding roof must be at least as deep as half the width
of the roof between its supports. Then the resultant
earth arch above the roof carries most of the load.

(A familiar example of effective earth arching is
its use with sheet metal culverts under roads. The
arching in a few feet of earth over a thin-walled
culvert prevents it from being crushed by the weight
of heavy vehicles.)

Figure 5.7 shows how a flexible roof yields under
the weight of 30 inches of earth mounded over it and
how earth arching develops. After the arch is formed,
the only weight that the yielding roof supports is the
weight of the small thickness of earth between the
roof and the bottom of the arch.

Protective earth arching also results if a shelter is
covered with a material that compresses when
loaded, or if the whole roof or the whole shelter can
be pushed down a little without being broken.

ORNL-OWG 78-7441

Fig. 5.7. Earth arching over a yielding roof enables a shelter to withstand much greater pressures.

SHELTER AGAINST BETA AND
ALPHA PARTICLES

In addition to the invisible, light-like gamma
rays, fallout particles radiate two types of hazardous
invisible panicles: beta and alpha particles. These
radiations would be minor dangers to informed
people in fallout areas, especially to those who had
entered almost any kind of shelter before the fallout
began to be deposited in their area.

• Beta particles are high-speed electrons given off
by some of the radioactive atoms in fallout. Only the
highest-energy beta particles can penetrate more than
about lOfeet ofairorabout [:» inch of water, wood, or
human body tissue. Any building that keeps out
fallout particles will prevent injury from beta radia-
tion.

The only frequently serious dangers are from ( 1 )
internal beta-radiation doses from fallout-
contaminated food or drink, and (2) beta burns from
fresh fallout particles. Fresh fallout particles are no
more than a few days old and therefore very
radioactive. If fresh particles remain for at least
several tens of minutes in contact with the skin, beta
burns are likely to result. If only thin clothing
separates fresh fallout particles from the skin, a
considerably longer time will elapse before their
radiation causes beta burns.

In dry, windy weather, fresh fallout particles
might get inside one’s nose and ears, along with dust
and sand, and could cause beta burns if not promptly
washed off or otherwise removed.

Prompt washing will prevent beta burns. If
water is not available, brushing and rubbing the
fallout particles off the skin will help.

If a person is exposed outdoors where there is
heavy, fresh fallout fora long enough time to receive
a large dose of gamma radiation, the highest-energy
beta radiation given off by fresh fallout particles on
the ground may be a relatively minor danger to his
eyes and skin. Even ordinary glasses give good
protection to the eyes against such beta radiation,
and ordinary clothing gives good protection to the
skin.

Ordinary clothing will shield and protect the
body quite well from all but the highest-energy beta
particles given off by fresh fallout deposited on the
clothing. Fallout-contaminated clothing should be
removed as soon as practical, or at least brushed and
beaten before entering a shelter room, to rid it of as
many fallout particles as possible. (Fallout particles
that are many days old will not cause beta burns
unless large quantities are on the body for hours.)

Most of the knowledge about beta burns on
human skin was gathered as a result of an accident
during the largest U.S. H-bomb test in the tropical
Pacific. 6 Winds blew the fallout in a direction not
anticipated by the meteorologists. Five hours after
the multimegaton surface burst, some natives of the
Marshall Islands noticed a white powder beginning
to be deposited on everything exposed, including
their bare, moist skin. Unknown to them, the very
small particles were fresh fallout. (Most fallout is
sand-like, but fallout from bursts that have cratered
calcareous rock, such as coral reefs and limestone, is
powdery or flakey, and white.) Since the natives knew
nothing about fallout, they thought the white dust
was ashes from a distant volcanic eruption. For two
days, until they were removed from their island
homes and cared for by doctors, they paid practically
no attention to the white dust. Living in the open and
in lightly constructed homes, they received from the
fallout all around them a calculated gamma-ray dose
of about 175 R in the two days they were exposed.

The children played in the fallout-contaminated
sand. The fallout on these islanders’ scalps, bare
necks, and the tops of their bare feet caused itching
and burning sensations after a time. Days later, beta
bums resulted, along with extreme discoloration of
the skin. Beta burns are not deep burns; however, it
took weeks to heal them. Some, in spite of proper
medical attention, developed into ulcers. (No serious
permanent skin injury resulted, however.)

For survivors confined inside crowded,
unsanitary shelters by heavy fallout, and without
medicines, beta burns could be a worse problem than
were similar burns to the Marshall Islanders.

All of the Marshall Islanders unknowingly ate
fallout-contaminated food and drank fallout-
contaminated water for two days. Mainly as a result
of this, radioactive iodine was concentrated in their
thyroid glands, and thyroid abnormalities developed
years later. (There is a simple, very low-cost means of
attaining almost complete protection against this
delayed hazard: taking minute prophylactic doses of
a salt, potassium iodide. This will be discussed in
Chapter 13.)

In dry, dusty, windy areas the human nasal
passages usually filter out much dust. A large part of
it is swallowed and may be hazardous if the dust is
contaminated with fallout. Under such dry, windy
conditions, beta burns also could be caused by large
amounts of dust lodged inside the nasal passages.
Breathing through a dust mask, towel, or other cloth

would give good protection against this localized
hazard. In conclusion: persons under nuclear attack
should make considerable effort to protect them-
selves from beta radiation.

• Alpha particles, identical to the nuclei of helium
atoms, are given off by some of the radioactive atoms
in fallout. These particles have very little penetrating
power: 1 to 3 inches of air will stop them. It is
doubtful that alpha particles can get through
unbroken skin; they cannot penetrate even a thin
fabric. 6 Alpha particles are hazardous only if
materials that emit them (such as the radioactive
element plutonium) enter the body and are retained
in bone, lung tissue, or other parts of the body. Any
shelter that excludes fallout particles affords
excellent protection against this radiation danger.
Unless survivors eat or drink fallout-contaminated
food or water in considerably larger quantities than
did the completely uninformed natives of the
Marshall Islands, danger from alpha particles would
be minor.

PROTECTION AGAINST OTHER NUCLEAR
WEAPONS EFFECTS

• Flash burns are caused by the intense rays of
heat emitted from the fireball within the first minute
following an explosion. 6 This thermal radiation
travels at the speed of light and starts to heat or burn
exposed people and materials before the arrival of the
blast wave. Thermal radiation is reduced — but not
eliminated — if it passes through rain, dense clouds, or
thick smoke. On a clear day, serious flash burns on a
person’s exposed skin can be caused by a 20-megaton
explosion that is 25 miles away.

A covering of clothing — preferably of white
cloth that reflects light -can reduce or prevent flash
burns on those who are in a large part of an area in
which thermal radiation is a hazard. However, in
areas close enough to ground zero for severe blast
damage, the clothing of exposed people could be set
on fire and their bodies badly burned.

• Fires ignited by thermal radiation and those
resulting from blast and other causes especially
would endanger people pinned down by fallout while
in or near flammable buildings. Protective measures
against the multiple dangers from fire, carbon mon-
oxide. and toxic smokes are discussed in Chapter 7.

• Flash blindness can be caused by the intense
light from an explosion tens of miles away in clear
weather. Although very disturbing, the blindness is
not permanent; most victims recover within seconds

to minutes. Among the Hiroshima and Nagasaki
survivors (people who had been in the open more
than persons expecting a nuclear attack would be),
there were a number of instances of temporary
blindness that lasted as long as 2 or 3 hours, but only
one case of permanent retinal injury was reported. 6

Flash blindness may be produced by scattered
light; the victim of this temporary affliction usually
has not looked directly at the fireball. Flash blindness
would be more severe at night, when the pupils are
larger. Retinal burns, a permanent injury, can result
at great distances if the eye is focused on the fireball.

People inside any shelter with no openings
through which light can shine directly would be
protected from flash burns and eye damage. Persons
in the open with adequate warning of a nuclear
explosion can protect themselves from both flash
blindness and retinal burns by closing or shielding
their eyes. They should get behind anything casting a
shadow quickly.

SKIN BURNS FROM HEATED DUST
(THE POPCORNING EFFECT)

When exposed grains of sand and particles of
earth are heated very rapidly by intense thermal
radiation, they explode like popcorn and pop up into
the air. 6 Whije this dust is airborne, the continuing
thermal radiation heats it to temperatures that may
be as high as several thousand degrees Fahrenheit on
a clear day in areas of severe blast. Then the shock
wave and blast winds arrive and can carry the
burning-hot air and dust into an open shelter. 6 ' 9
Animals inside open shelters have been singed and
seriously burned in some of the nuclear air-burst tests
in Nevada. 9

Thus Japanese working inside an open tunnel-
shelter at Nagasaki within about 1 00 yards of ground
zero were burned on the portion of their skin that was
exposed to the entering blast wind, even though they
were protected by one or two turns in the tunnel. 4
(None of these Japanese workers who survived the
blast-wave effects had fatal burns or suffered serious
radiation injuries, which they certainly would have
suffered had they been outside and subjected to the
thermal pulse and the intense initial nuclear radiation
from the fireball.)

Experiments conducted during several nuclear
test explosions have established the amount of
thermal radiation that must be delivered to exposed
earth to produce the popcorning effect. 6 Large air
bursts may result in exposed skin being burned by hot

dust and heated air produced at overpressure ranges
as low as 3 or 4 psi. However, calculations indicate
that the large surface bursts most likely to endanger
Americans would not result in the occupants of small,
open shelters being burned by these effects — except
at somewhat higher overpressures.

Protection is simple against the heated dust and
very hot air that may be blown into an open shelter by
the blast. When expecting an attack, occupants of an
open shelter should keep towels or other cloths in
hand. When they see the bright light from an explo-
sion, they should cover their heads and exposed skin.
If time and materials are available, much better
protection is given by making expedient blast doors,
as described in Appendix D. When occupants see the
very bright light from a large explosion miles away,
they can close and secure such doors before the
arrival of the blast wave several seconds later.

ESSENTIAL LIFE-SUPPORT EQUIPMENT

Shelters can be built to give excellent protection
against all nuclear weapon effects, except in places
within or very close to cratered areas. But most
shelters would be of little use in areas of heavy fallout
unless supplied with enough life-support equipment
to enable occupants to stay in the shelters until condi-
tions outside become endurable. In heavy fallout
areas most high-protection-factor shelters would be
crowded; except in cold weather, most would need a
ventilating pump to remove warmed air and bring in
enough cooler outdoor air to maintain survivable
temperature-humidity conditions. Means for storing
adequate water is another essential life-support
requirement. These and other essential or highly
desirable life-support needs are covered in following
chapters.

BASEMENT SHELTERS

The blast and fire effects of a massive, all-out
attack of the magnitude possible in 1987 would
destroy or damage most American homes and
other buildings and endanger the occupants of
shelters inside them. Outside the blast and/or
fire areas, the use of shelters inside buildings
would not be nearly as hazardous. However, an
enemy might also target some areas into which
large numbers of urban Americans had evacua-
ted before the attack, although such targetting
is not believed to be included in Soviet strategy.

Earth-covered expedient shelters in a blast area
give better protection against injury from blast, fire,
or fallout than do almost all basements. But during
the more likely kinds of crises threatening nuclear
war most urban Americans, including those who

would evacuate into areas outside probable blast
areas, probably would lack the tools, materials,
space, determination, physical strength, or time
required to build good expedient shelters that are
separate from buildings and covered with earth. As a
result, most unprepared urban citizens would have to
use basements and other shelters in existing
structures, for want of better protection.

Shelters in buildings, including basement shelters,
have essentially the same requirements as expedient
shelters: adequate shielding against fallout radiation,
strength, adequate ventilation-cooling, water, fallout
radiation meters, food, hygiene, etc. Sketches and short
descriptions of ways to improve the fallout protection
afforded by home basements are to be found in widely
distributed civil defense pamphlets, including two
entitled “In Time of Emergency,” and “Protection in
the Nulear Age.” In 1987, millions of copies of
these pamphlets are stockpiled for possible
distribution during a crisis. Unfortunately, most
of such official instructions were written years
ago, when the deliverable megatonnage and the
number of Soviet warheads were small fractions
of what they are today. Official civil defense
instructions now available to average Ameri-
cans do not inform the reader as to what degree of
protection against fallout radiation (what protection
factor) is given by the different types of do-it-yourself
shelters pictured. There is no mention of dependable
ways to provide adequate cooling-ventilation, an
essential requirement if even a home basement is to be
occupied by several families in warm or hot weather.
Outdated or inadequate information is given about
water, food, the improvement of shelter in one’s
home, and other survival essentials.

No field-tested instructions at present are
available to guide householders who may want to
strengthen the floor over a home basement so that it
can safely support 2 feet of shielding earth piled on it.
In areas of heavy fallout, such strengthening - often
would be needed to safely support adequate overhead
shielding, especially if the house were to be jarred by a
light shock from a distant explosion. In the following
paragraphs, a way to greatly improve the fallout
protection afforded by a typical home basement is
outlined. If improved in this manner, a basement
would provide excellent fallout protection for several
families.

First, earth should be placed on the floor above
to a depth of about one foot. Earth can be carried
efficiently by using sacks or pillowcases, using the
techniques described in Chapter 8 for carrying water.
If earth is not available because the ground is frozen

or because of the lack of digging tools, other heavy
materials (containers of water, heavy furniture,
books, etc.) should be placed on the floor above.
These materials should weigh enough to produce a
loading of about 90 pounds per square foot — about
the same weight as earth one foot thick. This initial
loading of the floor joists causes them to carry some
of the weight that otherwise would be supported by
the posts that then are to be installed.

Next, a horizontal beam is installed so as to
support all of the floor joists under their centers.
Figure 5.8 shows a beam and one of its supporting
posts. Such a supporting beam preferably is made by
nailing three 2X6s securely together. (Three 2X4s
would serve quite well.)

ORNL-OWG 7&183M

Fig. 5.8. Supporting beam and one of its posts
installed to increase the load of shielding material
that can be carried safely by the floor above a
home basement.

Cut posts to fit exactly under the beam. If trees at
least 4 inches in diameter are not available, make
posts by nailing boards together. Position the two
outermost posts within 2 feet of the ends of the beam.
Space the posts at even intervals, with each post
under a floor joist. A post under every third joist is
ideal; this usually means a spacing between posts of
about 4 1 /: feet. If the basement is 20 feet long, 5 posts
are enough. Nail each post to the beam, and secure
the bases of each with brace boards laid on the
basement floor, as illustrated.

Finally, place a second 1 -foot-thick layer of
earth on the floor above. If the basement windows are
protected with boards and if all but a part of one
window and all the aboveground parts of the
basement walls are covered with earth 2 feet thick, the
basement shelter will have a protection factor of
several hundred against fallout radiation.

Adequate ventilation and cooling should be
assured by using a homemade air pump (a KAP),
made and installed as described in Appendix B.
Forced ventilation is especially necessary if more
than one family occupies the basement in warm or
hot weather.

More work and materials are required to
improve a home basement in this manner than are
needed to build a covered-trench shelter for one
family. An earth-covered shelter separate from
buildings will provide equally good protection
against radiation, better protection against blast, and
much better protection against fire.

If a family cannot build a separate, earth-
covered shelter outdoors, often it would be advisable
to make a very small shelter in the most protected
corner of the basement. Such an indoor shelter
should be of situp height (about 40 inches for tall
people) and no wider than 3 feet. Its walls can readily
be built of chairs, benches, boxes, and bureau
drawers. Interior doors make an adequately strong
roof. Expedient shielding materials, to be placed on
the roof and the two exposed sides, can be ordinary
water containers and bureau drawers, boxes, and
pillow cases filled with earth or other heavy materials.
Or, if heavy-duty plastic trash bags or 4-mil
polyethylene film are available, make expedient
water containers and use them for shielding. To do
so, first line bureau drawers, boxes, pillow cases,
trash cans, etc. with plastic. Place the lined containers
in position to shield your shelter, then fill these
expedient water containers with drinkable water (see
Chapter 8).

As demonstrated by hot-weather occupancy
tests of such very small indoor shelters, a small KAP
or other air pump must be operated to maintain a
forced flow of air through such a crowded shelter, to
prevent intolerable temperature-humidity
conditions. (See Chapter 6 for ventilation-cooling
requirements, including the provision of an
adequately large opening in each end of a shelter.) in
some basements a second small KAP would be
needed in hot weather to pump outdoor air through
the basement. This KAP could be operated by pulling

a cord from within the small shelter, using an
improvised “pulley” as described in Appendix B.

PUBLIC SHELTERS

In the event of an unexpected attack, many
unprepared Americans should and would take refuge
in nearby marked public shelters. Throughout the
populated areas that would not be subjected to blast,
fire, or heavy fallout, the use of public shelters could
save millions of lives. All persons concerned with
survival should remember that the large majority of
officially surveyed and marked shelters give better
protection against radiation than most unimproved
home basements. -

Persons preparing to go to public shelters should
be aware that many lack forced ventilation and that
the blowers and fans of most forced ventilation
systems would be stopped by loss of electric power
due to electromagnetic pulse effects or by other
effects of nuclear explosions on electrical systems. A
blast wave at an overpressure range as low as 1 psi
(144 pounds per square foot) would wreck most
shelter-ventilating fans. In 1987, no water or food
normally is stocked. A person who brought to a
public shelter 10 large plastic trash bags and 10 pillow
slips, to make 10 expedient water bags in which 60
gallons of water could be stored (as described in
Chapter 8), would help both himself and dozens of
other shelter occupants. If he hoped to share the
basement in a strange family’s home, his chances of
being welcomed would be improved if he brought a
small homemade shelter-ventilating pump and other
survival items. The same small pump would be
impractical in a large public shelter. An Oak Ridge
National Laboratory study completed in 1978 found
that if all citizens were to go to National Shelter
Survey (NSS) shelters within one mile of their homes,
69 r c of those who found space would be in shelters
rated for 1000 or more occupants. 1 " The average
number of shelter spaces in this largest class of public
shelters was 3179. The prospect of living in an
unequipped shelter crowded with this many
unprepared people — each of whom would have only
10 square feet of floor space — is a strong motivation
to work hard to build and equip a small, earth-
covered shelter.

DECIDING WHAT KIND OF SHELTER
TO BUILD OR USE

Before deciding what kind of shelter you and
your family should build or use, it is best to read all of

this book. Your final decision should include
consideration of ways to provide life-support
equipment discussed in following chapters. At this
stage, however, the reader will find it helpful to
review important reasons why different types of
shelters offer the best hope of survival to different
people, in different areas, and under different
conditions.

This book is written primarily to improve the
survival chances of people who cannot or do not
build permanent shelters. The information which
follows will help you select the best expedient or
available shelter for your family.

SHELTER NEAR OR IN YOUR HOME

If your ‘home is 10 or more miles from an
average target such as a major airport with long
runways, or is 20 or more miles from a great city with
several strategic targets, you are fortunate: you can
prudently build or use a shelter close to home. No
one can foretell accurately which way the winds will
blow or where weapons will explode, so, if practical,
you should build a shelter that gives better protection
against fallout, blast, and fire than shelters in build-
ings. Most people living outside targeted areas could
build such a shelter in two days or less, using one of
the designs of earth-covered expedient shelters
detailed in Appendix A.

Even if you plan to evacuate, you should decide
where you would take shelter nearby in case you were
unable to do so. There is always a chance that an
attack may be launched without warning, giving
insufficient time to evacuate. Or the missile aimed at
the area in which you live may miss its target. If your
targeted home area were not hit, moderately heavy
fallout might be the only danger; even an improved
basement shelter would be adequate in that case.

EARTH-COVERED EXPEDIENT
FAMILY SHELTERS

Advantages of earth-covered, expedient family
shelters:

* Better protection against heavy fallout, blast,
and fire than afforded by the great majority of
shelters in buildings.

* The possibility of building in favorable
locations, including places far removed from target
areas, and places where it is impractical to build or to
improve large group-shelters giving good protection.

* The opportunity for men, women, and
children to work together to provide good protection
in minimum time.

* A better chance to benefit from thoughtful
preparations made in advance than would be the case
in public shelters where water, food, etc. must be
shared.

* Less risk of personality clashes, hysteria under
stress, exposure to infectious diseases, and other
problems that arise when strangers are crowded
together for days or weeks.

Disadvantages of earth-covered, expedient
shelters:

* It may be difficult to meet the requirement for
time, space, people able to work hard, materials, and
tools — and to get all these together at the building
site.

* Building is difficult if heavy rain or snow is
falling or if the ground is deeply frozen. (However,
untrained Americans have built good fallout shelters
with shielding provided by 5 or more feet of packed
snow, 1 1 including a winter version of the Crib- Walled
Pole Shelter described in Appendix A. The practi-
cality of several Russian designs of snow-covered
expedient shelters also has been demonstrated by
winter construction tests in Colorado/ 2 )

* The fewer occupants of family shelters could
not provide as many helpful skills as would be found
in most public shelters, with tens-to-thousands of
occupants.

* The lack of instruments for measuring
changing radiation dangers. However, the occupants
could make a homemade fallout meter by following
the instructions in Appendix C, or buy a commercial
instrument before a rapidly worsening crisis arises.

PUBLIC AND OTHER EXISTING SHELTERS

Advantages of the great majority of public and
other existing shelters, most of which are in buildings:

* Their immediate availability in many
localities, without work or the need to supply
materials and tools.

* The provision of fair-to-excellent fallout
protection — generally much better than citizens have
available in their homes.

* The availability in some shelters of fallout
meters and occupants who know how to use them and
who can provide other needed skills.

* The chance for persons who are not able to
carry food or water to a public shelter to share some
brought by the more provident occupants.

Disadvantages of the great majority of public
and other existing shelters available to large numbers
of people:

* The location of most of them in targeted areas.

* Poor protection against blast, fire and carbon
monoxide.

* Lack of water and means for storing it,
and lack of stocked food.

* No reliable air pumps, which are essential in
warm or hot weather for supplying adequate ventilat-
ing-cooling air to maintain endurable conditions in
fully occupied shelters —especially belowground.

* Uncertainties regarding the availability of
fallout meters and occupants who know how to use
them.

* No dependable lights, sanitary facilities, or
other life-support equipment, with few exceptions.

* The crowding together of large numbers of
people who are strangers to each other. Under
frightening conditions that might continue for weeks,
the greater the number of people, the greater would
be the risks of the spread of infectious diseases and of
hysteria, personality clashes, and the development of
other conflicts.

BELOWGROUND EXPEDIENT EARTH-
COVERED FALLOUT SHELTERS

(Appendix A details two designs of below-
ground shelters, three designs of aboveground
shelters, and one design that affords excellent
protection built either below or aboveground).

Advantages of belowground, earth-covered
expedient fallout shelters:

* They afford better protection than do above-
ground, earth-covered types.

* Less time, work, and materials are required to
build them than to build equally protective above-
ground designs.

* If built sufficiently separated from houses and
flammable woods, they provide much better protection
against fire hazards than do shelters in buildings.

* If dug in stable earth, even types with unshored
earth w'alls give quite good blast protection up to
overpressure ranges of at least 5 psi — where most
homes and buildings would be destroyed by blast or
fire.

Disadvantages of belowground expedient fallout
shelters:

* They are not practical in areas where the water
table or rock is very near the surface.

* It is impractical to build them in deep-frozen
ground.

* They are usually more crowded and uncom-
fortable than improved basement shelters.

EXPEDIENT BLAST SHELTERS

Advantages of expedient blast shelters:

* Occupants of expedient blast shelters de-
scribed in Appendix D could survive uninjured in
extensive blast areas where fallout shelters would not
prevent death or injury.

* Blast doors would protect occupants from shock
waves, dangerous overpressures, blast winds, and
burns on exposed skin caused by the popcorning effect
and heated air.

* The expedient blast shelters described in
Appendix D of this book were built and blast
tested in Defense Nuclear Agency blast tests.
Their air-supply systems were not damaged by
blast effects that would have bent over or broken
off the aboveground, vertical air-supply pipes
typical of even expensive imported Swiss and
Finnish permanent family blast shelters. (Not-
withstanding this weakness, such permanent
blast shelters will save many lives.) The hori-
zontal blast doors of these tested expedient blast
shelters were not damaged because they were
protected on all sides by spiked-together blast-
protector logs surrounded by ramped earth. (In
contrast, the horizontal blast door of the most
expensive blast shelter described in a widely
distributed Federal Emergency Management
Agency pamphlet (number H-12-3) is unpro-
tected on its sides. This untested blast door
probably would be torn off and blown away if
struck by a strong blast wave, following blast
winds, and pieces of houses and trees that would
be hurled hundreds of feet.)

* The blast-tested expedient blast valve de-
scribed in Appendix D will prevent entry of

blast waves through a shelter’s ventilation pipes
and resultant destruction of the ventilation
pump and possible injury of occupants.

Disadvantages of expedient blast shelters:

* They require more time, materials, tools,
skill, and work than are needed for building
expedient fallout shelters.

* Especially expedient blast shelters should
be well separated from buildings and woods
that if burned are likely to produce dangerous
quantities of carbon monoxide and toxic smoke.

* Their ventilation openings permit the entry
of many more fallout particles than do the venti-
lation pipes with goosenecks and filters of typi-
cal permanent blast shelters. (However, deadly
local fallout probably will not be a major danger
in the blast areas where the great majority of
Americans live, because a rational enemy will
employ air bursts to destroy the mostly “soft”
targets found in those areas. Air bursts can
destroy most militarily significant “soft” targets
over about twice as many square miles as can
the surface or near-surface bursting of the same
weapons. Fortunately, air bursts produce only
tiny particles, and only a small fraction of these,
while they still are very radioactive, are likely
to be promptly brought to earth in scattered “hot
spots” by rain-outs and snow-outs. Thus rela-
tively few prompt fatalities or delayed cancer
cases from air-burst fallout are likely to result-
even from the air bursting of today’s smaller
Soviet wax-heads that would inject most of their
particles into the troposphere at altitudes from
which wet deposition can take place.

WARNING: Permanent home fallout and
blast shelters described in widely available
FEMA pamphlets have protection factors in
line with the PF 40 minimum standard for
public shelters in buildings. In heavy fallout
areas a sizeable fraction of the occupants of PF
40 shelters will receive radiation doses large
enough to incapacitate or kill them later. Per-
manent shelters built specifically to protect
against nuclear weapon effects should have
PFs much higher than PF 40.

None of the permanent home or family
shelters described in official OCD, DCPA, or
FEMA free shelter-building instruction pam-
phlets have been built for evaluation and/or
testing — a finding confirmed to the author in
1987 by a retired shelter specialist who for some
20 years served in Washington with FEMA and
its predecessors.

Chapter 6

Ventilation and Cooling of Shelters

CRITICAL IMPORTANCE

II high-protection-factor shelters or most other
shelters that lack adequate forced ventilation were
lulls occupied for several days in warm or hot
weather, they would become so hot and humid that
the occupants would collapse from the heat if they
were to remain inside. It is important to understand
that the heat and water v apor given off by the bodies
of people in a crowded, long-occupied shelter could
be deadly if fallout prevents leaving the shelter.

When people enter an underground shelter or
basement in the summertime, at first the air feels
cool. However, if most shelters are fully occupied for
a few days without adequate ventilation, the floors,
walls, and ceilings, originally cool, will have
absorbed about all the body heat of which they are
capable. Some shelters will become dangerously hot
in a few hours. I nless most of the occupants' body
heat and water vapor from sweat are removed by
air circulated through a typical shelter, the heat-
humidity conditions will become increasingly dan-
gerous in warm or hot weather. One of the most
important nuclear war survival skills people should
learn is how to keep occupied shelters adequately
ventilated in all seasons and cool enough for many
days of occupancv in warm or hot weather. Methods
for ventilating with homemade devices and for
keeping ventilating air from carrying fallout
particles into shelters are described in Appen-
dices A and B. Instructions for Directional
Fanning, the simplest means for forcing ade-
quate volumes of air to flow through shelters,
are given at the end of this chapter.

MAKING AND USING AN EXPEDIENT
AIR PUMP

The best expedient way to maintain livable
conditions in a shelter, especially in hot weather, is to

make and use a large-volume shelter-ventilating
pump. Field tests have proved that average Ameri-
cans can build the expedient air pump described in
Appendix B in a few hours, with inexpensive
materials found in most households.

This simple pump was invented in 1962 by the
author. I called it a Punkah-Pump, because its hand-
pulled operation is somewhat like that of an ancient
fan called a “punkah”, still used by some primitive
peoples in hot countries. (Unlike the punkah,
however, this air pump can force air to move in a
desired direction and is a true pump.) It was named
the Kearny Air Pump (KAP) by the Office of Civil
Defense following tests of various models by
Stanford Research Institute, the Protective Struc-
tures Development Center, and General American
Transportation Company. These tests confirmed
findings first made at Oak Ridge National Labora-
tory regarding the advantages of the KAP both as a
manually operated pump for forcing large volumes of
outdoor air through shelters and as a device for
distributing air within shelters and fanning the
occupants. See Fig. 6.1.

The air pump instructions given in Appendix B
are the result of having scores of families and pairs of
untrained individuals, including children, build and
use this air pump. They were guided by successively
improved versions of these detailed, written instruc-
tions, that include many illustrations (see Appendix
B). Some people who are experienced at building
things will find these instructions unnecessarily long
and detailed. However, shelter-building experiments
have shown that the physically stronger individuals,
usually the more experienced builders, should do
more of the hard, manual work when shelters are
built, and that those less experienced at building
should do the lighter work — including making
shelter-ventilating pumps. These detailed, step-by-
step instructions have enabled people who never

Fig. 6.1. A 6-foot KAP tested for durability at
Oak Ridge. After 1000 hours of operation during
which it pumped air through a room at a rate of 4000
cubic feet per minute (4000 cfm), there were only
minor tears in the plastic flaps.

Fig. 6.2. Behind the girl is the homemade air
pump that made it possible for a family of six to live
in a crowded trench shelter for more than three days.

Outside the temperature rose to 93° F.

before had attempted to build a novel device of any
kind to make serviceable air pumps.

(The air pump instructions given in Appendix B
repeat some information in this chapter. This
repetition is included both to help the reader when he
starts to build an air pump and to increase the
chances of the best available complete instructions
being given to local newspapers during some future
crisis. The instructions given in this book could be
photographed, reproduced, and mass-distributed by
newspapers.)

Figure 6.2 shows (behind the girl) a 20-inch-wide
by 36-inch-high KAP installed in the entry trench of a
trench shelter. The father of the Utah family
described earlier had made this simple pump at
home, using only materials and tools found in many
homes — as described in Appendix B. He carried the
pump on top of his car to the shelter-building site.
The pendulum-like, flap-valve pump was swung from
two cabinet hinges (not shown) screwed onto a
board. The board was nailed to roof poles of the
narrow entry trench extending behind the girl in the
photograph. The pull-cord was attached to the pump
frame below its hinged top and extended along one
trench wall for the whole length of the shelter. Any

one of the six occupants could pull this cord and
easily pump as much as 300 cubic feet per minute of
outdoor air through the shelter and through the
insect screens over both its entrances. (Without these
screens, the numerous mosquitoes in this irrigated
area would have made the family’s shelter stay very
unpleasant.)

During the 77 hours that the family continu-
ously occupied their narrow, covered trench, the tem-
peratures outside rose as high as 93° F. Without the
air pump, the six occupants would have been driven
from their shelter by unbearable temperature-
humidity conditions during the day. 8

The photo in Fig. 6.2 also shows how the air
pump hung when not being operated, partially
blocking the entry trench and causing a “chimney
effect” flow of air at night. There was a 10-inch space
between the air pump and the trench floor, and the
resulting flow of air maintained adequate ventilation
in the cool of the desert night, when outdoor
temperatures dropped as low as 45° F. Cool outdoor
air flowed down into the entry and under the
motionless air pump, replacing the body-warmed air
inside the shelter. The entering cool air continuously

forced the warm air out of the shelter room at ceiling
height through the emergency crawlway-exhaust
trench at the other end. When the weather is cool, a
piece of plastic or tightly woven cloth could be hung
in the doorway of a well designed, narrow shelter, to
cause a flow of fresh air in the same manner.

Numerous shelter occupancy tests have proved
that modern Americans can live for weeks in an
adequately cooled shelter with only 10 square feet of
floor space per person. 13 Other tests, such as one
conducted by the Navy near Washington, D.C.
during an abnormally cool two weeks in August,
1962, have shown that conditions can become
difficult even" when summertime outdoor air is being
pumped through a long-occupied shelter at the rate
of 12 cubic feet per minute, per person. 14,15 This is
four times the minimum ventilation rate for each
occupant specified by the Federal Emergency Man-
agement Agency (FEMA) for American shelters: 3
cubic feet per minute (3 cfm). Three cfm is about three
times the supply of outdoor air needed to keep healthy
people from having headaches as a result of exhaled
carbon dioxide. In hot, humid weather, much more
outdoor air than 12 cfm per person must be supplied to
a crowded, long-occupied shelter, as will be described in
the following section and in Appendix B.

MAINTAINING ENDURABLE SHELTER
CONDITIONS IN HOT WEATHER

The Navy test mentioned above showed how
much modern Americans who are accustomed to air
conditioning could learn from jungle natives about
keeping cool and healthy by skillfully using hot, humid,
outdoor air. While working in jungles from the Amazon
to Burma, I observed the methods used by the natives
to avoid unhealthful conditions like those experienced
in the Navy shelter, which was ventilated in a conven-
tional American manner. These jungle methods include
the first five of the six cooling methods listed in this
section. During 24 years of civil defense research, my
colleagues and I have improved upon the cooling
methods of jungle people, primarily by the invention
and thorough field-testing of the homemade KAP
described in Appendix B, and of the Directional
Fans covered by the instructions at the end of
this chapter.

Even during a heat wave in a hot part of the
United States, endurable conditions can be main-
tained in a fully occupied, belowground shelter with
this simple pump, if the test-proven requirements
listed below are ALL met.

Most basement shelters and many aboveground
shelters also can be kept at livable temperatures in

hot weather if the cooling methods listed below are
ALL followed:

• Supply enough air to carry away all the shelter
occupants’ body heat without raising the “effective
temperature” of the air at the exhaust end of the
shelter by more than 2°F. The “effective tempera-
ture” of the air to which a person is exposed is
equivalent to the temperature of air at 100% relative
humidity that causes the same sensation of warmth or
cold. “Effective temperature” combines the effects of
the temperature of the air, its relative humidity, and
its movement. An ordinary thermometer does not
measure effective temperature. In occupancy tests of
crowded shelters when the supply of outdoor air was
hot and dry, shelter occupants have been surprised to
find that they felt hottest at the air-exhaust end of
their shelter, where the temperature reading was
lower than at the air-intake end. Their sweaty bodies
had acted as evaporative air coolers, but their body
heat had raised the effective temperature, a reliable
indicator of heat stress. If 40 cubic feet per minute (40
cfm) per person of outdoor air is supplied and
properly distributed, then (even if the outdoor air is
at a temperature which is typical of the hottest hours
during a heat wave in a hot, humid area of the United
States) the effective temperature of the shelter air will
be increased no more than 2°F by the shelter
occupants’ body heat and water vapor. Except for a
relatively few sick people dependent on air condition-
ing, anyone could endure air that has an effective
temperature only 2°F higher than that of the air
outdoors.

(There are exceptions to this ventilation require-
ment when the ceiling or walls of basement or
aboveground shelters in buildings are heated by the
sun to levels higher than skin temperature. In such
shelters, more than 40 cfm of outdoor air per
occupant must be supplied. However, if a shelter is
covered by at least two feet of earth, it will be so well
insulated that its ceiling and walls will not get hot
enough to heat the occupants.)

• Move the air gently, so as not to raise its
temperature. In the aforementioned Navy test, a high
speed, electric ventilating pump and the frictional
resistance of pipes and filters raised the temperature
of the air supplied to the shelter by 3°F. Under
extreme heat wave conditions, an air supply 3°F
hotter than outdoor air could be disastrous — espe-
cially if considerably less than 40 cfm per occupant is
supplied, and body heat raises the air temperature
several additional degrees.

• Distribute the air quite evenly throughout the
shelter. In a trench shelter, where air is pumped in at one
end and flows out the other, good distribution is
assured. In larger shelters, such as basements, ventilating
air will move from the air-supply opening straight to the
air-exhaust opening. Persons out of this air stream will
not be adequately cooled. By using one or more
additional, smaller KAPs (also described in Appendix
B), fresh air can be distributed easily throughout large
shelter rooms, and the occupants will be gently fanned.

• Provide occupants with adequate drinking water
and salt. In extremely hot weather, this means 4 quarts
of water per day per person and 1 tablespoon ( 1 0 grams)
of salt, including the salt in food.

• Wear as few clothes as practical. When the skin is
bare, moving air can evaporate sweat more efficiently
for effective cooling. Air movement can keep bare skin
drier, and therefore less susceptible to heat rash and skin
infections. In the inadequately ventilated Navy test
shelter, 34 of the 99 initially healthy young men had heat
rash and 23 had more serious skin complaints at the end
of their sweaty two-week confinement, although their
overall physical condition had not deteriorated. 15 How-
ever, at sick call every day all of these Navy test
subjects with skin complaints were treated by
medical corpsmen. In a nuclear war, very few
shelter occupants would have medicines to treat
skin diseases and infections, that if not taken
care of usually worsen rapidly under continu-
ously hot, humid conditions. Simple means for
preventing skin diseases and infections — means
proved very effective by jungle natives and by
our best trained jungle infantrymen in World
War II — are described in the Prevention of Skin
Diseases section of Chapter 12.

• Keep pumping about 40 cfm of air per person
through the shelter both day and night during hot
weather, so that the occupants and the shelter itself will
be cooled off at night. In the Navy test, the ventilation
rate of 7 to 12 cfm was not high enough to give
occupants the partial relief from heat and sweating that
people normally get at night. 15 In a National Academy
of Sciences meeting on protective shelters, an authority
stated: “Laboratory experiments and field investigations
have shown that healthy persons at rest can tolerate
daily exposures to ETs [effective temperatures] up to
90° F, provided they can get a good night’s sleep in a
cooler environment.” 14 An effective temperature 90° F is
higher than the highest outdoor effective temperature
during a heatwave in the South or in American deserts.

ADEQUATE VENTILATION IN
COLD WEATHER

In freezing weather, a belowground shelter covered
with damp earth may continue to absorb almost all of
its occupants’ body heat for many days and stay
unpleasantly cold. In one winter test of such a fully
occupied shelter, the temperature of the humid air in the
shelter remained around 50° F. 16 Under such conditions,
shelter occupants should continue to ventilate their
shelter adequately, to avoid the following conditions:

• A dangerous buildup of carbon dioxide from
exhaled breath, the first symptoms of which are
headaches and deeper breathing.

• Headaches from the carbon monoxide produced
by smoking. When the ventilation rate is low, smoking
should not be permitted, even near the exhaust opening.

• Headaches, collapse, or death due to carbon
monoxide from open fires or gasoline lanterns that
release gases into the shelter air.

NATURAL VENTILATION

Enough air usually will be blown through an
aboveground shelter if sufficiently large openings are
provided on opposite sides and if there is any breeze.
But if the weather is warm and still and the shelter
crowded, the temperature-humidity conditions soon
can become unbearable.

Adequate natural ventilation for belowground
shelters is more difficult. Even if there is a light breeze,
not much air will make a right-angle turn and go down a
vertical entry, make another right-angle turn, and then
flow through a trench or other shelter partially obscured
by people and supplies.

In cool weather, occupants’ body heat will warm
the shelter air and make it lighter than the outdoor air.
If a chimney-like opening or vent-duct is provided in the
ceiling, the warmed, lighter air will flow upward and out
of the shelter, provided an adequate air-intake vent is
open near the floor. An Eskimo igloo is an excellent
example of how very small ventilation openings, skill-
fully located in the ceiling and at floor level, make it
possible in cold weather for chimney-type natural
ventilation to supply the 1 cfm per person of outdoor air
needed to prevent exhaled carbon dioxide from be-
coming dangerously concentrated.

In warm weather, chimney-type natural ventila-
tion usually is inadequate for most high-protection-
factor shelters that are fully occupied for days. And in
hot weather, when as much as 40 cfm per occupant is
required, body-warmed shelter air is no lighter than the
outdoor air. Chimney-type ventilation fails completely
under these conditions.

54

SHELTER VENTILATION
WITHOUT FILTERS

Numerous tests have shown that the hazards from
fallout particles carried into shelters by unfiltered
ventilating air are minor compared to the dangers from
inadequate ventilation. A 1962 summary of the official
standards for ventilating systems of fallout shelters
stated: “Air filters are not essential for small (family
size) shelters . . . ” 17 More recent findings have led to the
same conclusion for large fallout shelters. A 1973
report by the Subcommittee on Fallout of the National
Academy of Sciences on the radioiodine inhalation
problem stated this conclusion: “The opinion of the
Subcommittee is that inhalation is far less of a threat
than ingestion [eating or drinking], and does not justify
countermeasures such as filters in the ventilating
systems of shelters.” 1 *

Recommendations such as those above real-
istically face the fact that, if we suffer a nuclear
attack, the vast majority of Americans will
have only the fallout protection given by build-
ings and some expedient shelters. Consequently,
how best to use available resources must be the
primary consideration when planning for pro-
tection against the worst dangers of a nuclear
attack; relatively minor hazards may have to be
accepted. For unprepared people, inhalation of
fallout particles would be a minor danger com-
pared to being forced out of a shelter because of
dangerously inadequate ventilation.

The most dangerous fallout particles are
those deposited on the ground within the first
few hours after the explosion that produces
them. Typically, these “hot” particles would be
so large and fast-falling that they would not be
carried into expedient shelters equipped with
low-velocity air intake openings, such as those
described in this book. Nor would these most
dangerous “hot” fallout particles be “sucked”
into gooseneck air-intake pipes, or other proper-
ly designed air-intake openings of a permanent
shelter.

For most shelters built or improved hurried-
ly during a crisis it will be impractical to pro-
vide filtered air. The Car-Over-Trench Shelter
pictured in Fig. 6.3 points up the overriding
need for pumped air for occupants of crowded
shelters during warm or hot weather. This sim-
ple shelter provides fallout protection about
four times as effective as that given by a typical
home basement. After the car was driven over
the trench, earth was shoveled into the car and
its trunk and on top of its hood. At one end was a
combined crawlway entrance/air intake open-
ing, at the other end, a 1-foot-square air exhaust
opening. Each opening was covered by a small
awning. To keep loose shieldingearth from run-
ning under the car and into the trench, the upper
edges of 5-foot-wide strips of polyethylene film
first were attached with duct tape to the sides
and ends of the car, about 2 feet above the
ground. Then earth was piled onto the parts of
the film strips that were lying on the ground, to
secure them. Finally, earth was piled against
the vertical parts of the attached film strips.

Fig. 6.3. Pulling a Small, Stick-Frame KAP to
Keep Temperatures Endurable for Occupants of a Car-
Over-Trench Shelter in Warm Weather. Enough air
also can be supplied with a small Directional
Fan, although more laboriously.

(Placing earth rolls — see page 150 — around the
sides of an earth-loaded car provides better,
more secure side shielding, but requires more
materials and work.)

INHALATION DANGERS

Only extremely small fallout particles can
reach the lungs. The human nose and other air
passages “ . . . can filter out almost all particles
10 micrometers [10 microns] [or larger] in dia-
meter, and about 95 percent of those exceeding 5
micrometers.” (See reference 6, page 599.) Five
micrometers equal 5 millionths of a meter, or 5
thousandths of a millimeter.

Using a dust mask or breathing through
cloth would be helpful to keep from inhaling
larger "hot” fallout particles which may cause
beta burns in noses, sinuses, and bronchial
tubes. Many such retained particles may be
swallowed when cleared from one’s air passage-
ways by the body's natural protective processes.

As shown below in Fig. 6.4, a relatively
“large” particle — 40 microns (40 p m) in dia-
meter, spherical, and with the sand-like density
of most fallout particles — falls about 1300 feet
in 8 hours. (A dark-colored particle 40 microns
in diameter is about as small a speck as most
people can see with the naked eye.) Most 40-
H m-diameter fallout particles would take a

HEIGHT IN THOUSANDS OF FEET

55

Fig. 6.4. Stabilized Radioactive Fallout Clouds Shown a Few Minutes After the Explosions, with
distances that spherical fallout particles having diameters of 40, 50, and 100 microns fall in 8 hours. 6

few days to fall from the cloud of a one-megaton
explosion down far enough into the troposphere
to be occasionally scavenged and promptly
brought to earth by rain or snow while still very
radioactive. In 1987, however, most of the thou-
sands of deployed Soviet ICBM warheads are
550 kilotons or smaller. (See Jane's Weapon Sys-
tems. 1987-88.) The stabilized clouds of such
explosions would be mostly in the troposphere,
and some of even the tiniest particles — those
small enough to be breathed into one's lungs —
would be promptly scavenged and deposited in
scattered "hot spots." Fortunately, most of the
very small and tiniest fallout particles would
not be deposited for days to months, by which
time radioactive decay would have made them
much less dangerous. Breathing tiny radioactive
particles into one’s lungs would constitute a
minor health hazard compared to other dangers
that would afflict an unprepared people sub-
jected to a large scale nuclear attack.

SCAVENGING OF RADIOACTIVE
PARTICLES

Scavenging is most effective below about
30.000 feet, the maximum height of most rain
and snow clouds. See Fig. 6.4. Because the
Soviets have deployed thousands of ICBMs
with warheads of “only" 100 to 550 kilotons,
Americans face increased dangers from very
radioactive particles scavenged by rain-outs or
snow-outs. The resultant "hot spots” of fallout
heavy enough to kill unsheltered people in a

few weeks could be scattered even hundreds of
miles downwind from areas of multiple explo-
sions, especially missile fields. Prudent Ameri-
cans, even those living several hundred miles
from important targets, whenever practical
should equip their shelters with adequate venti-
lating pumps and dust filters.

This potential danger from extremely small
fallout particles will be worsened if the United
States deploys mobile ICBMs such as Midget-
man, probably on large military reservations in
the West. (The Soviet Union already has mobile
ICBMs in its nuclear forces.) In the event of a
Soviet attack, our hard-to-target mobile missiles
probably would be subjected to a barrage of
relatively small warheads air-bursted so as to
blanket their deployment areas. The resultant
large clouds of extremely small radioactive
particles in the troposphere usually would be
blown eastward, and resultant life-endangering
“hot spots” from rain-outs and/or snow-outs
could be scattered clear to the Atlantic coast.

Fortunately, even in many expedient shel-
ters completed in a few days, filtered air can be
provided by using a homemade KAP to pump
air through furnace or air-conditioner filters, as
described in the last section of Appendix B. To
learn how you can supply a shelter at low cost
with air so well filtered that essentially all
extremely small fallout particles and infective
aerosols are removed, see Appendix E, How To
Make a Homemade Plywood Double-Action
Piston Pump and Filter.

These worsening potential dangers from
extremely small "hot" fallout particles brought
promptly to earth by scavenging are not likely
to endanger nearly as many Americans’ lives
as would 24-hour fallout of much larger particles
from surface and near-surface explosions. Pro-
viding enough outdoor air to shelters, rather
than filtered air. will continue to deserve first
priority.

STOPPING OR RESTRICTING
SHELTER VENTILATION

When instrument readings or observations
show that heavy fallout has begun to be de-
posited, shelter occupants should decide whether
to restrict or stop ventilation. If it is windy
outside, even some sand-like fallout particles
may be blown into a shelter with large ventila-
tion openings. However, ventilation should not
be restricted long enough to cause weaker oc-
cupants to be on the verge of collapse from
overheating, or to result in headaches from
exhaled carbon dioxide.

If a house is burning dangerously close to a
separate, earth-covered shelter, closing the shelter’s
ventilation openings for an hour or two usually will
prevent the entry of dangerous concentrations of
carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, or smoke. (Most
houses will burn to the ground in less than two hours.)

When an attack is expected, a shelter, occupied
or soon to be occupied, should be kept as cool as
practical by pumping large volumes of outdoor
air through it when the outdoor air is cooler
than the shelter air. This also w'ill assure that the air
is fresh and low in exhaled carbon dioxide. Then, if a
need arises to stop or restrict ventilation, the shelter can
be closed for longer than could be done safely otherwise.

VENTILATION/ COOLING OF
PERMANENT SHELTERS

A permanent family fallout shelter, built at
moderate cost before a crisis, should have a
ventilation system that can supply adequate
volumes of either filtered or unfiltered air,
pumped in through an air-intake pipe and out
through an air-exhaust pipe. Provision also
should be made for the grim possibility that
fallout could be so heavy that a shelter might
have to be occupied for weeks, or even part-time
for months. A small or medium-sized permanent
shelter should be designed so that most of the
time after an attack it can have adequate natural
ventilation through its entry way and emergency
exit. During hot spells, forced ventilation
through these same large air passageways
should be provided by using a homemade KAP.
This manual air pump, described in Appendix
B, can force large volumes of air through low-
resistance openings with minimum effort.

Ways to ventilate and cool permanent shel-
ters are described in Chapter 17, “Permanent
Family Fallout Shelters for Dual Use," and in
Appendix E, “How to Make and Use a Homemade
Plywood Double- Action Piston Pump and Filter.”

WARNING: MANY OFFICIAL INSTRUCTIONS
FOR BUILDING AND VENTILATING
SHELTERS ARE LIFE-ENDANGERING

The reader is advised not to read this section
if pressed for time during a crisis, unless he is
considering building an expedient or permanent
shelter described in an official civil defense
publication.

Because of the worldwide extreme fear of
radiation, civil defense specialists who prepare
official self-help instructions for building
shelters have made radiation protection their
overriding objective. Apparently the men in
Moscow and Washington who decide what
shelter-building and shelter-ventilating instruc-
tions their fellow citizens receive — especially
instructions for building and improving ex-
pedient shelters— do not understand the ven-
tilation requirements for maintaining endurable
temperature/humidity conditions in crowded
shelters. It must be remembered that shelters
may have to be occupied continuously for days
in warm or hot weather.

Russian small expedient shelters are even
more dangerously under-ventilated than are
most of their American counterparts, and can
serve to illustrate similar ventilation deficien-
cies of American shelters. Figure 6.5 is a Russian
drawing (with its caption translated) of a “Wood-
Earth Shelter” in a Soviet self-help civil defense
booklet, “Anti-Radiation Shelters in Rural
Areas.” This booklet, published in a 200,000-
copy edition, includes illustrated instructions
for building 20 different types of expedient
shelters. All 20 of these shelters have dangerous-
ly inadequate natural ventilation, and none of
them have air pumps. Note that this high-
protection-factor, covered-trench shelter de-
pends on air flowing down through its “Dust
Filter with Straw Packing (hay)” and out through
its small "Exhaust Duct with Damper.”

As part of Oak Ridge National Laboratory’s
participation in Defense Nuclear Agency’s “Dice
Throw" 1978 blast test, I built two Russian Pole-
Covered Trench Shelters. These were like the
shelter shown in Fig. 6.5, except that each
lacked a trapdoor and filter. As anticipated, so
little air flowed through these essentially dead-
ended test shelters that temperatures soon be-
came unbearable.

4

Fig. 6.5. Figure 20. Wood-Earth Shelter without Lining of the Walls for Clay Soils, 10

Occupants: 1 - Trap Door; 2 - Dust Filter with a Straw Packing (hay); 3 - Earth Cover
60-80 cm thick; 4 - Roofing made of Poles; 5 -Exhaust Duct with Damper; 6 - Curtain
made of Tightly Woven Cloth; 7 - Removable Container for Wastes; 8 - Water Collecting
Sump.

NOTE: Bill of materials is: Rough Lumber, 2.7 cubic meters; Nails, 0.12 kilogram;

Wire, 0.64 kilogram: Work Requirement, 90-110 man-hours; Shielding Coef-
ficient, 250-300.

Russian earth-covered expedient fallout
shelters are based on military dugouts designed
for brief occupancy during a conventional at-
tack. Subsequently, they were improved for
fallout protection but were made much less
habitable by Soviet civil defense specialists.
Apparently these specialists were ignorant of
ventilation requirements, and almost certainly
they did not field-test small expedient fallout
shelters for habitability. Tens of millions of
Russians have been taught to build such shelters.

Once any bureaucracy issues dangerously
faulty equipment or instructions, it rarely cor-
rects them except under pressure. I have ex-
perienced this reluctance even during wartime,
when trying to improve faulty combat equip-
ment that was causing American soldiers to
lose their lives. Continuing proofs of such bur-
eaucratic reluctance to correct dangerous errors
are hundreds of thousands of potentially life-
endangering civil defense pamphlets and
booklets — especially the several editions of In
Time of Emergency — kept nationwide in hundreds
of communities, primarily for crisis distribution.

Some American official instructions for
building expedient shelters have been slowly
improved over the decades; the best are given in
the June 1985 edition of Protection in the Nuclear
Age, one of the Federal Emergency Management
Agency’s widely available free booklets. Yet
even in this improved edition no mention is
made of the crucial need for forced ventilation
during warm weather, nor for expedient, simple
means for providing pumped air. Also, in the
June 1985 edition of Protection in the Nuclear Age,
the second crawl way entry/ exit of the Above-
Ground, Door-Covered Shelter (see Appendix
A. 4) is replaced by a “4-6” DIA. PIPE FOR
VENTILATION,” which makes this very small
shelter essentially dead-ended and thereby
eliminates adequate ventilation in warm wea-
ther. With only a 6-inch-diameter air-exhaust
opening, not nearly enough air can flow
naturally in warm weather through this crowded
shelter’s room (only about 39 inches wide by 34
inches high). As proved by habitability tests in
Florida and elsewhere, a KAP or Directional
Fan must be used, even with two crawlway
entry/exits.

The essential second crawlway entry/exit
of the Aboveground Door-Covered Shelter was
eliminated as the result of a recommendation by
a contractor for FEMA charged with field testing
and evaluating expedient shelters, and improv-
ing abbreviated shelter-building instructions.
No habitability tests were required. So the
contractor concluded in his 1978 report to FEMA
that the second entry/exit should be eliminated
because “The building of entries is time con-
suming and with this small a shelter a second
entry is really not justified.”

In peacetime, bureaucracies of all nations
tend to divide up responsibilities between
specialists and to promote means by which non-
prestigious wartime problems can apparently
be solved with the least expense and work.

DIRECTIONAL FANNING
TO VENTILATE SHELTERS

The Directional Fanning instructions on
the following two pages may save more lives
than any other instructions given in this book
for a homemakeable survival item. I regret that
no one rediscovered this premechanization,
simple, yet effective way of manually pumping
air until after the original Nuclear War Survival
Skills was published.

In 1980, Dr. William Olsen, a NASA research
engineer long concerned with improving self-
help civil defense, rediscovered one kind of
Directional Fanning. Since then, with the as-
sistance of able Americans and others, I have
designed and tested several types of Directional
Fans. I have field-tested and repeatedly im-
proved the instructions to enable average people
to quickly learn how to make and use such fans
effectively.

The great advantage of Directional Fanning
is that almost anyone who is given the field-
tested instructions can quickly make and use
one of these simple fans. Only very widely
available materials are needed. The main dis-
advantage is that Directional Fanning is a more
laborious way to ventilate a shelter than using
KAPs, as described in detail in Appendix B.

Americans are not likely to receive Direc-
tional Fanning instructions from the Federal
Emergency Management Agency. FEMA’s pre-
decessors, the Office of Civil Defense and the
Defense Civil Preparedness Agency, were un-
able to get the millions of dollars necessary to
buy factory-made KAPs and other manual air
pumps to ventilate officially designated fallout
shelters, and FEMA has avoided shelter venti-
lating controversies. No widely available offi-

cial American publication includes instructions
for making and using any expedient air-
pumping device.

Thanks to Congressman Ike Skelton, Demo-
crat of Missouri and strong civil defense
advocate, in 1981 I was able to demonstrate
Directional Fanning to Louis Giuffrida, at that
time the Director of FEMA. I gave Directional
Fans to the FEMA specialists concerned with
shelter ventilation, all of whom have since left
FEMA. To date, although Directional Fanning
instructions have been reproduced in three pri-
vate civil defense publications, and some 600
copies of a metric version of the instructions
were distributed to British civil defense profes-
sionals at the 1984 Annual Study of Civil Defence
and Emergency Planning Officers, FEMA has
not even evaluated Directional Fanning.

In contrast, in 1981 1 gave copies of instruc-
tions for both KAPs and Directional Fans to Dr.
Yin Zhi-shu, the Director of the People’s Repu-
blic of China’s National Research and Design
Institute of Civil Defense — and the next day he
started evaluating these simple devices. (At
that time I was traveling extensively in China
as an official guest, exchanging civil defense
information.) Dr. Yin, who heads all Chinese
civil defense research and development, went
with his top ventilation and shelter design
specialists to a furniture factory in Beijing.
There I watched workmen quickly build both a
large and a small KAP, and also Directional
Fans. Then Dr. Yin and his specialists began
using their air-velocity meters to measure the
volumes of air that these simple devices could
pump. On the following days I participated in
more ventilation tests using KAPs and Direc-
tional Fans in tunnel blast shelters in Beijing
and in the port city of Dalien.

While watching these top Chinese civil
defense professionals make and test KAPs and
Directional Fans, I kept thinking: “This is the
way Thomas Edison and Henry Ford would
have evaluated simple devices of possible great
importance to millions.”

The reader is urged to keep the following
two pages of Directional Fanning instructions
ready for reproduction in a crisis. The sections
on the small 2-handled Directional Fan and the
large 1-Man Fan will be the most useful to
unprepared people. Ventilation by pairs of men
using Bedsheet Fans is an effective method for
forcing very large volumes of outdoor air
through tunnels, corridors and mines with ceil-
ings at least 9 feet high — provided they have
two large openings. However, this method re-
quires organization and discipline.

DIRECTIONAL FANNING TO VENTILATE SHELTERS

Directional Fanning is the simplest way to force enough outdoor air
through typical basement, trench, and other expedient shelters to maintain
endurable conditions, even in extremely hot, humid weather.

During a worsening nuclear crisis most unprepared citizens probably
will not have the time and/or materials needed to make a KAP or other
efficient shelter-ventilating pump — even if they have the instructions. In
contrast, tests with average citizens have indicated that if they have
instructions for making and using Directional Fans and if there are a few
hours of warning time before the attack, then the majority will be able to
ventilate all of their expedient shelters, except some of the largest.

The principal disadvantage of Directional Fans is that they are more
laborious to operate than are KAPs, thatare manually powered, pendulum-
like air pumps that conserve energy.

A. DIRECTIONAL FANNING TO VENTILATE AND COOL
SMALLER SHELTERS

A 2-Handled Directional Fan of
the size illustrated is less tiring to use
and requires less manual dexterity
than does a 1 -handled fan with the
same size blade. With this small 2-
handled fan you quite easily can force
about 300 cubic feet per minute (300
cfm ) of outdoor air through a crowded
trench or basement shelter. This is
enough air for up to 9 adults crowded
into a small shelter in extremely hot,
humid weather, and enough for about
100 people in cold weather. By fanning
vigorously. 500 to 600 cubic feet per
minute have been forced through a
small covered-trench shelter.

To make a durable 2-handled fan, first make itsframeout'of2 sticks each
14 inches long and 2 sticks each 22 inches long. See sketch. To strengthen
the corners, overlap the sticks about one-half inch, as shown.

When using sticks cut from a tree, select ones with diameters of about s /<
inch, and make shallow notches in all 4 sticks before tying together the 4
corners of the blade. If you do not have strong string, use 34-ineh-wide strips
of bedsheet cloth, or other strong cloth, slightly twisted.

If using sawed sticks, be sure to use none smaller than % x % inch in cross
section. If you have very small nails or brads, use only one to connect each
corner; then tie each comer securely. To prevent possible blistering of
hands, wrap cloth around the fan handles, or wear gloves.

To cover the fan's blade, any strong, light fabric, such as bedsheet cloth,
serves well If you are going to sew on the cloth, first cut a 26 x 30-inch piece.
Wrap the 30-inch width smoothly crosswise around the frame, after cutting 4
notches in the cloth’s corners, so that the tied-together parts of the sticks will
not be covered. Pin or tape the cloth to make a smooth blade; finally sew
securely. (If waterproof construction adhesive is available, a smaller piece of
cloth can be used and the blade can be covered in a very few minutes.)

If time and/or materials are very limited, make a fan with its blade
merely a piece of cloth connecting two 22-inch-long sticks. This very
simple fan is reasonably effective, although tiring to use.

Cardboard covering a blade is likely to become damp and fragile in the
humid air of a crowded shelter. Very light sheetmetal makes a good fan blade
and requires only 2 sticks. A blade of '/.-inch plywood is too heavy.

If no sticks are available, a double thickness of heavy, stiff cardboard 22
inches long by 14 inches wide will pump almost as much air if used as a
handleless fan. The pieces should be securely tied or taped together. If
waterproof tape is available, cover the parts that you will grip with sweaty
hands, thus preventing dampening and softening the cardboard.

For maximum ventilation, the air-intake opening of a shelter should be at
least as large as its air- exhaust opening. (If the air- exhaust opening of your
small shelter is much larger than that shown in the sketches, block part of it
off to reduce it to approximately this 24-inch-high by 20-inch-wide size, for
more effective use with this fan.) The air should be fanned out of the shelter
in the direction in which the air is naturally flowing. For maximum ventilation
rate, fan about 40 strokes per minute.

W ith one or more Directional F ans, air inside a shelter can be distribute
effectively and the occupants cooled. Also, if during the time of maximui
fallout dose rate the occupants get close together in the most protective pa
of the shelter, they often will get unbearably hot unless fanned.

To fan air out through an air-exhaust opening, sit facing the opening wit
your elbows about 4 inches lower than the bottom of the opening. Then cout
1, 2, 3 while you;

LU Quickly raise the fan to a
vertical position close in front of your
face and immediately fan (push) a
slug of air into the opening — ending
the power stroke with your arms fully
extended and with the fan almost
horizontal and out of the way of air
that was “sucked” behind the fan and
is still flowing out through the opening.

CD, CD After a slight pause,

leisurely withdraw the almost horizontal
fan until the bottom of its blade almost
touches your stomach — preparatory
to the next power stroke.

To increase the flow of air
through a shelter, while fanning
the occupants:

Have two or more occupants sitting
inside the shelter each use a fan of the
size described above to fan the air so
as to increase its velocity in the direction
in which air already is flowing through
the shelter. Such Directional Fanning
is especially effective in increasing the
air flow through small, narrow shelters.

To avoid higher radiation exposures
near openings, build an essentially
airtight partition across the shelter
room, with a 24-inch-high x 20-inch- [2j . 00 fA *
wide hole in it through which to fan. By
fanning through a 24 x 20-inch hole in

a cardboard partition built across a doorway inside a U-shaped permanei
trench shelter 76 feet long, the air flow was increased by an average of 32
cubic feet per minute.

B. DIRECTIONAL FANNING TO VENTILATE AND COO
LARGER SHELTERS

1. With a Large 1-Man Fan

To ventilate larger basements, big
covered trenches, and other large shel-
ters lacking adequate ventilation, use
one or more large 1-man fans. See
sketch. Note that the 20 x 30-inch fan
blade is made like a 2-stick kite, and
that the upper end of the longer dia-
gonal stick serves as a 10* inch handle.
The model illustrated is made of 2
nominal l x 2- inch boards, one 46
inches long and the other 35 inches
long. These boards are connected at a
point MV/ inches from their lower
ends, first with a single clinched nail,
and then by being tied securely. The
edges of the handle are rounded smooth.

The blade frame is covered on
both sides with strong bedsheet cloth,
that is wrapped around and secured to
the strong cords or wires tied to notches
cut in the boards (or sticks) near the 4
corners of the blade. (If cord or wire is
not available, 4 2-inch-wide strips of
strong cloth, slightly twisted, serve
welL)

60

A durable but laboriously heavy fan can be made in a few minutes using a
20 x 30-inch piece of 'i inch plywood nailed to a single 46-inch-long, 1x2-
inch hoard Or use a single round stick about 1 '/« inches in diameter, flattened
on one side.

A fan with its blade made of two sheets of very heavy cardboard tied on
both sides of a 1 x 2-inch board is decidedly effective when dry. However,
typical cardboard will become soft and worthless in most crowded, long-
occupied. humid shelters.

To fan directionally, it is best to stand just outside and to one side of a
doorway, so that your body does not obstruct the air flow. Preferably stand
opposite and facing the open door, which should be secured open and
perpendicular to its doorway. Hold the fan like a golf club and swing it with
your arms extended. Then slowly count 1. 2 while you:

□ Make the power stroke with the fan blade broadside until the end of
the stroke, when you quickly turn it 90 degrees.

m Make the pendulum- like return stroke with the fan blade kept
edgewise ("feathered") to the air flow until the end, when you quickly turn it
90 degrees, preparatory to making the next power stroke.

To pump more air. block off the upper part of the doorway with cloth,
cardboard, plywood, etc., to prevent air from flowing back in the wrong
direction through the upper part of the doorway. See sketch on preceding
page.

Whenever practical, directionally fan the air in the same direction that
the air is naturally flowing through the shelter. More air usually can be
pumped through a shelter if the fan is used to force air out through the air-
exhaust opening. This reduces the air pressure inside the shelter and causes
fresh outdoor air to be "sucked" into the shelter through the air-intake
doorway, or through other large air- intake openings. Thus with one fan 1 ,000
cubic feet per minute can be pumped through a fully occupied shelter. This is
enough outdoor air — if it is properly distributed within the shelter — to
maintain tolerable conditions for weeks for 25 occupants during extremely
hot weather, and for up to about 300 occupants during cold weather.

To ventilate and cool a room having only one doorway and no other
opening, do not block off any part of the doorway. If air is fanned into such a
room through the lower part of its completely open doorway, then air will flow-
back out of the room through the upper part of the doorway. However, this
pumps much less air than when a separate, large air-exhaust opening is
provided.

To increase the flow of outdoor air through a tunnel-shelter, several
fanners equally spaced along its length should each fan in the direction of the
natural air flow. This procedure was first proved practical during a 1981
ventilation test that Cresson H. Kearny participated in with Chinese civil
defense officials in the port city of Dalien. In this test 5 fanners, each with a
fan of approximately the size illustrated, forced air from the outdoors
through a 395-foot section between two opened entrances of a typical Chinese
tunnel-shelter. The air flow- was increased from a natural flow of 290 cubic
feet per minute to 3,680 cubic feet per minute. The 5 excellent Chinese fans
each had a blade made of a piece of 3 mm (approx. % inch) plywood nailed to a
single board.

\

- \

\

2. With a Bedsheet Fan

L'se a 2- man Bedsheet Fan to force thousands of cubic feet per minute of
outdoor air through a tunnel or long corridor having at least a 9-foot ceiling
and a large opening at each end. The most practical design tested was made
from a strong double bedsheet cut down to 6-foot width, with the wide hem at
its head-end left unchanged and with a similar-sized hem sewn in its opposite
end. to give a finished length of 6 feet. A6-foot-long, nominal 1 x2-inch board
lor an approximately l'-s inch diameter stick) was secured inside each end
hem of various models with waterproof construction adhesive, or with tacks,
or by tying Before a board was inserted, its edges were rounded. Round
sticks were smoothed.

Two persons preparing to use a Bedsheet Fan (see sketch) should stand
facing each other, at right angles to the desired direction of air flow, with the
cloth extended horizontally between them. Each fanner should grip his stick
with one hand near its "downwind" end and with his other hand near its
center.

A pair of Directional Fanners get ready to make a power stroke by leaning
in the upwind direction, as illustrated. Then the pair of fanners should count
1, 2. 3 while they:

m Make the power stroke by rapidly sweeping their sticks and the
attached cloth in an arc. until they are leaning in the downwind direction and
the sticks and cloth are again horizontal. See sketch.

m, go Hold the sticks and cloth horizontal Ito permit air that was
"sucked" behind the cloth to continue flowing in the desired direction) while
leisurely moving the Bedsheet Fan back to the starting position. During this
move the fanners change hands, as illustrated. (Note that what was the upper
side of the fan at the beginning of the power stroke now has become the lower
side!

Two men thus fanning vigorously produced a net air flow of 5,500 cubic
feet per minute through an empty school corridor that is 8 feet wide, has a 9-
foot ceiling, and is 194 feet long. The doors at both ends were open. To
adequately ventilate and cool people crowded into a long tunnel in hot
weather, a pair of Bedsheet Fanners should be positioned about every 100
feet along its length.

The practicality of using Bedsheet Fans to ventilate some very large
mines or caves having 2 or more large openings was proved by tests with
members of the Citizens Preparedness Group of Greater Kansas City. These
tests were conducted in 1982 near Kansas City in a huge limestone mine that
has a ceiling averaging about 17 feet high, corridors about 35 feet wide,
columns of unexcavated rock about 15 feet square, and over 1,000,000
square feet of level, dry floor space. The air inside is“dead". remarkably still,
because the only openings are two truck-sized portals on one side of the
mine. Five pairs of Bedsheet Fanners, spaced about 75 feet apart down a
corridor, after fanning for several minutes produced a measured air flow of
approximately 100.000 cubic feet per minute through this part of this
corridor!

With many more pairs of Bedsheet Fanners working, enough air for at
least 10,000 occupants could be“sucked" into this mine through one of its 17
x 20-foot portals, fanned down a corridor to the far “dead end” of the mine,
then fanned through a cross corridor, and finally fanned back out through the
corridor that has the second truck-sized portal at its outer end.

A pair of pre-mechanization coal miners produced a directed airflow by
holding a piece of canvas vertically between them while they quickly walked
a short ways in the direction of the desired airflow; they walked back with the
canvas held horizontally between them. Then they repeated.

C. ADDITIONAL ADVANTAGES OF DIRECTIONAL FANS

1. No installation is needed, thus saving working time and materials for
making habitable shelters hurriedly built or upgraded during a crisis.

2. Directional Fans enable shelter occupants to quickly reverse the
direction of air flow through their shelter when outdoor wind changes cause
the direction of natural air flow to be reversed.

3. Four or more Directional Fans when used to circulate air within a
shelter room can serve like air ducts, while simultaneously fanning occupants.

4. Directional Fans are very unlikely to be damaged by blast effects
severe enough to wreck bladed fans or other fixed ventilation devices placed
at or near air-intake or air-exhaust openings, but not severe enough to injure
shelter occupants.

Chapter 7

Protection Against Fires and Carbon Monoxide

RELATIVE DANGERS

Fire and its consequences probably would be the
third-ranking danger to unprepared Americans
subjected to a massive nuclear attack. Direct blast
effects would be first, covering a large fraction of
densely populated areas and killing far more people.
Considerably fewer fatalities seem likely to result
from the second-ranking danger, fallout radiation.

THE FACTS ABOUT FIRE HAZARDS

Firestorms would endanger relatively few
Americans; only the older parts of a few American
cities have buildings close enough together, over a
large enough area, to fuel this type of conflagration.
Such fires have not occurred in cities where less than
about 30% of a large area was covered with
buildings. 19

In the blast area of Hiroshima, a terrifying fire
storm that burned almost all buildings within an area
of about 4.4 square miles resulted from many fires
being ignited almost simultaneously. Many were
caused by heat radiation from the fireball. Even more
fires were due to secondary effects of the blast, such
as the overturning of stoves. The buildings contained
much wood and other combustible materials. The
whole area burned like a tremendous bonfire; strong
winds that blew in from all directions replaced the
huge volumes of hot air that rose skyward from the
intense fires.

Lack of oxygen is not a hazard to occupants of
shelters in or near burning buildings or to those in
shelters that are closed tightly to prevent the entry of
smoke or fallout. Carbon monoxide, toxic smoke
from fires, or high concentrations of carbon dioxide

from shelter occupants' exhaled breaths would kill
occupants before they suffered seriously from lack of
oxygen.

FIRES IGNITED BY HEAT RADIATION

Figure 7.1 shows a wood-frame house after it
was heated for one second by heat radiation from a
small nuclear weapon exploded in a Nevada test. This
test house had no furnishings, but the heat was
intense enough to have ignited exposed upholstery,
curtains, bedding, papers, etc. in a typical home.

Heat radiation, will set fire to easily ignitable
materials (dry newspapers, thin dark fabrics, dry
leaves and dry grass) in about the same extensive
areas over which blast causes moderate damage to
frame houses. The blast wave and high-speed blast
winds will blow out many flames. However, tests
have shown that fire will continue to smolder within
some materials such as upholstery and dry rotted
wood, and after a while it often will burst into flame
and will spread. The burning automobile pictured in
Fig. 7.2 is an example of such ignition beyond the
range of severe blast damage.

The number of fires started by heat radiation in
areas where blast is not severe can be reduced by
whitewashing the insides of window panes and by
removing flammable materials from places in and
around houses where heat radiation could reach
them. Also, occupants of shelters in some homes that
would be only slightly damaged by blast could move
quickly to extinguish small fires and throw out
smoldering upholstered articles before fallout is
deposited.

Fig. 7.1. Heat radiation charred the paint on this house, which had been painted white to reflect heat rays.

The charring instantaneously produced the smoke. However, precautions had been taken to prevent this typical
U.S. house from being destroyed by fire, because the test was made to enable engineers to study the effects of
blast, rather than fire. The house was demolished by the 5-psi overpressure blast that struck seconds later, but it
did not burn.

Fig. 7.2. Thermal radiation from a nuclear explosion entered the car above through its closed windows and
ignited the upholstery. The windows were blown out by the blast a few seconds later. However, the explosion was
at such a distance that the blast wave was not severe enough to dent the car body.

Earth-covered shelters can be protected against
heat radiation from nuclear explosions and other
causes by painting any exposed wood and other
combustible materials at shelter openings with a
thick coating of slaked lime (old-fashioned white-
wash). The World War II firebombing of Kassel was
less effective than were similar raids on other German
cities because the roof timbers of buildings had been
so treated. 20

Figure 7.3 illustrates the effectiveness of a thick
coating of slaked lime in protecting a rough pine
board against ignition by heat radiation. No flames
from the burning logs touched the board. (Before this
photograph was ta-ken, the uppermost burning logs
of a vertical-sided pile were removed so that the
board could be seen clearly.)

Chinese civil defense instructions recommend
coating exposed wood with both slaked lime and
mud. 2! If only mud is available, a coating of it
protects wood quite well. If kept damp, a mud
coating is even more effective. (Simply keeping all
exposed flammable materials damp is helpful.)

In blast areas, cloth or plastic canopies over the
openings of expedient shelters usually would be
ignited by the heat and certainly would be blown
away by even moderate blast winds. If extra canopies
and stakes could be made and kept inside the shelter,
these replacements could be quickly erected after
blast winds subside and before fallout begins — at
least 15 minutes after the explosion. If no spare
canopies were available, it would be best to keep the
available canopies and their stakes inside the shelter,
if it were not raining.

FOREST AND BRUSH FIRES

Unless forests or brushy areas are dry, it is
difficult to start even scattered fires. Dangerous mass
fires would be' unlikely, except in blast areas where
the heat radiation would be very intense. However,
people building a shelter would do well to select a
shelter site at least as far away from trees as the height
of the tallest tree that could fall on the shelter — be-
cause of fire and smoke hazards in dry weather, and
because d igging a shelter among tree roots is difficult.

Fig. 7.3. Heat radiation had ignited the flaming half of the board on the ground, while the half near the
shovel — painted white with a thick coating of slaked lime — had not even begun to smoke.

CAUSES OF FIRE

Figure 7.4 pictures the same house shown in Fig.
7. 1 after it had been struck by the blast effects of a
small nuclear test explosion at the 5-psi overpressure
range. (If the house had been hit by the blast effects of
a multimegaton weapon, with longer-lasting blast
winds, it would have been wrecked about as
completely at the 3-psi overpressure range. At the
3-psi overpressure range, the blast winds from an
explosion 1000 times as powerful as the Nevada test
explosion that wrecked this house would blow 10
times as long. This longer-duration, 100-mph blast
wind would increase the damage done by the blast
wave. The 3-psi overpressure range from a 20-
megaton surface burst is about 10 miles from the
center of the crater, and from a one-megaton surface
burst, about 4 miles. 6 )

If the blast-wrecked house shown in the
illustration had had a furnace in operation when it
was demolished, the chances of its being set on fire
would have been high. In Hiroshima many of the first
fires resulted from secondary effects of blast,
especially the overturning of stoves, and not from
heat radiation. Although the air burst produced no
fallout, firefighters from undamaged, nearby com-
munities were unable to reach most of the burning
areas because of blast debris blocking the roads.
Later they were kept from burning areas by the
intense heat. Some water mains were broken, which
made water unavailable for firefighting in certain
areas.

In the event of an attack on the United States
employing many surface bursts, fallout would
prevent firefighting for days to weeks in a large part
of the most populated regions.

The basements of many substantial buildings
will withstand 5-psi blast effects and can prevent
occupants from suffering serious injuries from blast.
Most home basements can be reinforced with stout
boards and posts so as to give good protection
against blast effects up to considerably higher than
5 psi. But considering the dangers of fires in prob-
able blast areas, it is safer to build an earth-covered
shelter well removed from buildings than it is to
seek protection in shelters inside buildings.

CARBON MONOXIDE AND TOXIC SMOKE

If an undamaged building is burning, people
inside may be killed by carbon monoxide, toxic
smoke, or fiery-hot air. Tests have shown that even
fast-burning, rubble-free fires produce very high
concentrations of carbon monoxide. If large-scale
fires are burning near a shelter, the dangers from both
carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide may continue
for as long as 1 */2 hours after ignition. 22 Therefore, the
ventilation pipes or openings of a shelter should not
be placed close to a building that might be expected
to burn.

In the smoldering rubble of a large test fire, after
24 hours the carbon monoxide concentration was
still more than 1% and the air temperature was

Fig. 7.4. Unburned wreckage of the same two-story, wood-frame house pictured in Fig. 7.1 after being
wrecked by the 5-psi blast effects of a small nuclear test explosion.

1900°F. A carbon monoxide concentration of only
0.08% (8 parts CO in 10,000 parts of air) will cause
headache, dizziness, and nausea in 45 minutes, and
total collapse in 2 hours.

Realization of carbon monoxide dangers to
persons in simple fallout shelters and basements may
have led the writers of Soviet civil defense publica-
tions to define the “zone of total destruction” as the
blast areas where the overpressure exceeds 7 psi and
“residential and industrial buildings are completely
destroyed ... the rubble is scattered and covers the
burning structures,” and “As a result the rubble only
smolders, and fires as such do not occur.” 23
Smoldering fires produce more carbon monoxide
than do fiercely burning fires. Whether or not the
occupants of basement shelters survive the direct
blast effects is of little practical importance in those
blast areas where the rubble overhead burns or
smolders. So in the “zone of complete destruction,”
Russian rescue brigades plan to concentrate on
saving persons trapped inside excellent blast shelters
by the rubble.

About 135,000 Germans lost their lives in the
tragic city of Dresden during three days of firebomb
raids. Most casualties were caused by the inhalation
of hot gases and by carbon monoxide and smoke

poisoning. 20 Germans learned that when these
dangers were threatening an air raid shelter, the
occupants’ best chance of survival was to run outside,
even if the bombs were still falling. But in a nuclear
war the fallout dose rate may be so high that the
occupants of a shelter threatened by smoke and
carbon monoxide might suffer a more certain and
worse death by going outside. Instead, if they know
from instrument readings and their calculations that
they probably would receive a fatal dose before they
could reach another shelter, the occupants should
close all openings as tightly as possible. With luck,
carbon monoxide in deadly concentrations would
not reach them, nor would they be overcome by heat
or their own respiratory carbon dioxide before the
fire dangers ended.

Dr. A.Broido, a leading experimenter with fires
and their associated dangers, reached this conclu-
sion: “If I were building a fallout shelter I would
spend a few extra dollars to build it in my backyard
rather than in my basement, locating the intake vent
as far as possible from any combustible material. In
such a shelter 1 would expect to survive anything
except the close-in blast effects.” 22

This advice also applies to expedient shelters
built during a crisis.

Chapter 8
Water

WATER AND SALT REQUIREMENTS

Painful thirst has been experienced by very few
Americans. We take for granted that we will always
have enough water to drink. Most of us think of
"food and water” in that order, when we think of
survival essentials that should be stored. But if
unprepared citizens were confined in a shelter by
heavy fallout, they soon would realize that they
should have given first priority to storing adequate
water.

For the kidneys to eliminate waste products
effectively, the average person needs to drink enough
water so that he urinates at least one pint each day.
(When water is not limited, most people drink
enough to urinate 2 pints. Additional water is lost in
perspiration, exhaled breath, and excrement.) Under
cool conditions, a person could survive for weeks on 3
pints of water a day — if he eats but little food and if
that food is low in protein. Cool conditions, however,
would be the exception in crowded belowground
shelters occupied for many days. Under such
circumstances four or five quarts of drinking water
per day are essential in very hot weather, with none
allowed for washing. For a two-week shelter stay, 15
gallons per person should be stored in or close to a
shelter. This amount usually would provide for some
water remaining after two weeks, to prevent thirst in
case fallout dangers were to continue.

In a 1962 Navy shelter occupancy test lasting two
weeks, 99 sailors each consumed an average of 2.4
quarts (2.3 liters) of water per day. 15 The test was
conducted in August near Washington, D.C.; the
weather was unseasonably cool. The shelter was not
air-conditioned except during the last two days of the
test.

When one is sweating heavily and not eating
salty food, salt deficiency symptoms — especially
cramping— are likely to develop within a few days.
To prevent this, 6 or 8 grams of salt (about '/« oz, or %
tablespoon) should be consumed daily in food and
drink. If little or no food is eaten, this small daily salt
ration should be added to drinking water. Under hot
conditions, a little salt makes water taste better.

CARRYING WATER

Most families have only a few large containers
that could be used for carrying water to a shelter and
storing it in adequate amounts for several weeks.
Polyethylene trash bags make practical expedient
water containers when used as waterproof liners
inside smaller fabric bags or pillowcases. (Plastic
bags labeled as being treated with insecticides or
odor-controlling chemicals should not be used.)
Figure 8.1 shows a teenage boy carrying over 10
gallons (more than 80 pounds) of water, well
balanced front and back for efficient packing. Each
of his two burlap bags is lined with two 20-gallon
polyethylene trash bags, one inside the other. (To
avoid possible pinhole leakage it is best to put one
waterproof bag inside another.)

To close a plastic bag of water so that hardly any
will leak out, first spread the top of the bag until the
two inner sides of the opening are together. Then fold
in the center so that the folded opening is 4
thicknesses, and smooth (see Fig. 8.2). Continue
smoothly folding in the middle until the whole
folded-up opening is only about 1 inches wide.
Then fold the top of the bag over on itself so the
folded-up opening points down. With a strip of cloth
or a soft cord, bind and tie the folded-over part with a
bow knot, as illustrated.

t'HOlO l?38/?A

Fig. 8.1. Carrying 80 pounds of water in two
burlap bags, each lined with two larger plastic trash
bags, one inside the other.

ORNL-OWG 78-710$

Fig. 8.2. Folding and tying the mouth of a
water-filled plastic bag.

have the pebble tied about 4 inches further down
from the edge of its opening than the pebble tied in
the bag to be carried in back. This keeps the pebbles
from being pressed against the carrier’s shoulder by a
heavy load.

A pair of trousers with both legs tied shut at the
bottoms can be used to carry a balanced load if
pillowcases or other fabric bags are not at hand. Such
a balanced load can be slung over the shoulder with
the body erect and less strained than if the same
weight were carried in a single bag-like pack on the
back. However, trouser legs are quite narrow and do
not provide room to carry more than a few gallons.

To prevent water from slowly leaking through
the tied-shut openings of plastic bags, the water levels
inside should be kept below the openings.

STORING WATER

When storing expedient water bags in a shelter,
the water levels inside should be kept below the
openings.

Not many expedient shelters would be large
enough to store an adequate volume of water for an
occupancy lasting two or more weeks. Plastic-lined
storage pits, dug in the earth close to the shelter, are
dependable for storing large volumes of water using
cheap, compact' materials. Figure 8.3 shows a
cylindrical water-storage pit dug so as to have a
diameter about two inches smaller than the inflated

ORNL-OWG 77-I0423R

For long hikes, it is best to tie the water-holding
plastic bags so that the openings are higher than the
water levels inside.

To transport this type of expedient water bag in
a vehicle, tie a rope around the fabric outer bag near
its opening, so that the rope also encircles and holds
the plastic liner-bags just below their tied-shut
openings. The other end of this rope should then be
tied to some support, to keep the openings higher
than the water level.

To use two fabric bags or pillowcases to carry a
heavy load of water contained in larger plastic liner-
bags, connect the two fabric bags as shown in Fig. 8.1.

A small pebble, a lump of earth, or a similar
object should be tied inside the opening of each bag
before the two are tied together, to hold them
securely. The bag that is to be carried in front should

WITH

PLYWOOD
(OR STICKS
COVERED
WITH CLOTH
OR

HOOP TAPED
INTO FOLDED- OVER
EDGE OF 30 -gal

polyethylene

TRASH BAG
(18 in. DIAM IF
FULLY EXPANDED).
DOUBLE BAGS
ARE BETTER.

Fig. 8.3. Vertical section of cylindrical water-
storage pit lined with two 30-gallon waterproof
plastic bags. This pit held about 20 gallons.

diameter of the two 30-gallon polyethylene trash bags
lining it (one bag inside the other). Before a plastic
bag is placed in such a pit, the ends of roots should be
cut off flush to the wall with a sharp knife, and sharp
rocks should be carefully removed.

The best way to keep the upper edges of the pit-
lining bags from slipping into the pit is shown in Fig.
8.3: Make a circular wire hoop the size of the opening
of the bag, and tape it inside the top. In firm ground,
the upper edges of double bags have been
satisfactorily held in place simply by sticking six large
nails through the turned-under edges of the bags and
into the firm earth.

Figure 8.3 shows how to roof and cover a water
storage pit so as to protect the water. The “buried
roof” of waterproof material prevents any contami-
nation of the stored water by downward-percolating
rainwater, which could contain bacteria or small
amounts of radioactive substances from fallout. The
thick earth cover over the flexible roofing gives
excellent blast protection, due to the earth arching
that develops under blast pressure. In a large Defense
Nuclear Agency blast test, a filled water-storage pit of
the size illustrated was undamaged by blast effects at
an overpressure range which could demolish the
strongest aboveground buildings (53 psi).

A simpler way to store water is illustrated in Fig.
8.4. If the soil is so unstable that an unshored water
storage pit with vertical sides cannot be dug, the
opening of the bag (or of one bag placed inside
another) can simply be tied shut so as to minimize
leakage (see Fig. 8.4). Fill the bag with water, tie it,
and place it in the pit. Then bury it with earth to the
level of the water inside. A disadvantage of this
method is leakage through the tied-shut openings due
to pressure of loose earth on the bag. To lessen
leakage, leave an air space between the filled bag and
a roofing of board or sticks, so that the weight of
earth piled on top of the roofing will not squeeze the
bag. This storage method has another disadvantage:
after the earth covering and the roof are removed, it is
difficult to bail out the water for use — because as
water is bailed out, the loose surrounding earth
moves inward and squeezes the bag above the
lowered water level.

Large volumes of water can be stored in plastic-
lined rectangular pits. In order to roof them with
widely available materials such as ordinary %-inch
plywood or small poles, the pits should be dug no
wider than 3 feet. Figure 8.5 pictures such a pit: 8 feet

Fig. 8.4. These two 30-gallon polyethylene trash
bags, one inside the other, held 16 gallons of water.

They were undamaged by 50-psi blast effects while
buried in dry, very light soil. The plywood roof and
the earth placed over the water bag were removed
before this picture was taken.

Fig. 8.5. Post-blast view of plastic-lined water-
storage pit undamaged at a 6.7-psi overpressure
range. This pit held about 200 gallons.

long, 27 inches w'ide, and 30 inches deep. It was lined
with a 10-foot-wide sheet of 4-mil polyethylene. The
edges of this plastic sheet were held in place by
placing them in shallow trenches dug near the sides of
the pit and covering them with earth. Earth was

mounded over the plywood roof to a depth of about
30 inches, with a “buried roof” of polyethylene. The
earth cover and its "buried roof” were similar to the
pit covering illustrated by Fig. 8.3. This rectangular
pit contained about 200 gallons of water. No water
leaked out after the pit had been subjected to blast
effects severe enough to have flattened most
substantial buildings. However, rectangular pits at
higher overpressures failed, due to sidewall caving
that caused leaks.

In a subsequent blast test by Boeing Aerospace
Company, a plastic-lined water pit was undamaged at
the 200-psi overpressure range. First a rectangular
pit 4 ft. wide, 12 ft. long, and 2 ft. deep was dug.
Then inside this pit a 2 x 10 x 2-ft. water-storage
pit was dug, and lined with plastic film. After
being filled full of water, the storage pit was
covered with plywood, on which was shoveled 2
ft. of earth.

Plastic garbage cans are usually watertight;
most used metal garbage cans are not. If thoroughly
cleaned and disinfected with a strong chlorine bleach
solution, watertight garbage cans can serve for
emergency water storage, as can some wastebaskets.

If new plastic film is available, it can be used as a
lining to waterproof any strong box. To lessen the
chances of the plastic being punctured, rough
containers first should be lined with fabric.

If shelter is to be taken in or near a building,
water trapped in hot water heaters and toilet flush
tanks or stored in tubs might be available after an
attack.

SIPHONING

Pouring water out of a heavy water-storage bag
is inconvenient and often results in spillage. Dipping
it out can result in contamination. If a tube or piece of
flexible garden hose is available, siphoning (see Fig.
8.6) is the best way. A field-tested method is described
below. To prevent the suction end of the tube from
being obstructed by contact with the plastic liner of
the bag, tape or tie a wire “protector" to the end, as
pictured later in this section.

To start siphoning, suck on the tube until
water reaches your mouth. Next fold over the
tube near its end, to keep the tube full. Lower its
closed end until it is near its position shown in
Fig. 8.6. Then release your hold on the tube, to
start siphoning.

To cut off the water, fold over the tube and
secure it shut with a rubber band or string.

Water can be siphoned from a covered water
storage pit into a belowground shelter so that the
siphon will deliver running water for weeks, if

ORNl-DWG 78 14676

Fig. 8.6. Using a tube to siphon water from a
fabric bag lined with a larger plastic bag.

necessary. The Utah family mentioned earlier
siphoned all they needed of the 120 gallons of water
stored in a nearby lined pit. A field-tested method of
siphoning follows:

1. Dig the water storage pit far enough aw'ay
from the shelter so that the covering mounds will not
interfere with drainage ditches.

2. Use a flexible tube or hose which is no more
than 25 feet long. For a single family, a flexible
rubber tube with an inside diameter of 1 i inch (such as
surgical tubing) would be best. A flexible ! 2 -inch hose
of the type used with mobile homes and boats serves
well. As indicated by Fig. 8.7, the tube should belong
enough to extend from the bottom of the water pit to
within about a foot of the shelter floor.

3. Make sure that the end in the water pit will
not press against plastic and block the flow of water.
This can be avoided by (1) making and attaching a
wire “protector” to the end of the tube, as shown in
Fig. 8.8, or (2) taping or tying the end to a rock or
other object, to keep the end in the desired position.

4. Protect the tube by placing it in a trench
about 4 inches deep. This small trench is best dug
before roofing either the storage pit or the shelter. Be
sure a roof pole or board does not crush the tube.
Cover the tube with earth and tie it so that the end in

Fig. 8.7. Water siphoned into a belowground shelter.

Fig. 8.8. Two wire “protectors,” each made of
two pieces of coathanger wire taped to a ’/ 2 -inch
flexible hose and a rubber tube. Shown on the right is
a tube closed with a rubber band to stop a siphoned
flow of water.

the storage pit cannot be accidentally pulled out of
position.

5. To start the flow of water into the shelter,
hold the free end of the tube at about the height of the
surface of the water in the storage pit, while pulling
gently on the tube so that the part in the shelter is
practically straight. Exhale as much breath as you
can, then place the end of the tube in your mouth, and
suck hard and long. (The longer the tube or hose and
the larger its diameter, the more times you will have
to suck to start the flow of water.)

6. Without taking the tube out of your mouth,
shut it off airtight by bending it double near the end.

7. Exhale, straighten the tube, and suck again,
repeating until you feel a good flow of water into your
mouth while still sucking. Shut off the flow by bending
the tube double before taking it out of your mouth.

8. Quickly lower the end of the tube (which is
now full of water) and place the closed end in a
container on the shelter floor. Finally, open the end
to start the siphoned flow.

9. When you have siphoned enough water, stop
the flow by bending the tube double. Keep it closed in
the doubled-over, air-tight position with a strong
rubber band or string, as shown in Fig. 8.8. To prevent
loss of water by accidental siphoning, suspend the end
of the tube a couple of inches higher than the surface of
the water in the storage pit outside and close to where
the tube comes into the shelter. (Despite precautions,
air may accumulate in the highest part of the tube,
blocking a siphoned flow and making it necessary to
re-start the siphoning by repeating the sucking.)

DISINFECTING WATER

Water-borne diseases probably would kill more
survivors of a nuclear attack than would fallout-
contaminated water. Before an attack, if water from a
municipal source is stored in expedient containers that
could be unclean, it should be disinfected. For long
storage, it is best to disinfect all water, since even a few
organisms may multiply rapidly and give stored water a
bad taste or odor. Properly disinfected water remains
safe for many years if stored in thick plastic or glass
containers sealed airtight. For multi-year storage do
not use thin plastic containers, such as milk jugs, which
in time often develop leaks.

Any household bleach solution, such as Clorox,
that contains sodium hypochlorite as its only active

ingredient may be used as a source of chlorine for
disinfecting. The amount of sodium hypochlorite,
usually 5.25%, is printed on the label. (In recent years,
perhaps as a precaution against drinking undiluted
chlorine bleach solution, some household bleach
containers show a warning such as “Not For Personal
Use.” This warning can be safely disregarded if the
label states that the bleach contains only sodium
hypochlorite as its active ingredient, and if only the
small quantities specified in these and other instruc-
tions are used to disinfect water.) Add 1 scant
teaspoonful to each 10 gallons of clear water, and stir.
Add 2 scant teaspoonfuls if the water is muddy or
colored. Wait at least 30 minutes before drinking, to
allow enough time for the chlorine to kill all the
microorganisms. 24 Properly disinfected water should
have a slight chlorine odor.

To disinfect small quantities of water, put 2
drops of household bleach containing 5.25% sodium
hypochlorite in each quart of clear water. Use 4 drops
if the water is muddy or colored. 24 If a dropper is not
available, use a spoon and a square-ended strip of
paper or thin cloth about ‘/4 inch wide by 2 inches
long. Put the strip in the spoon with an end hanging
down about '/ 2 inch beyond the end of the spoon.
Then when bleach is placed in the spoon and the
spoon is carefully tipped, drops the size of those from
a medicine dropper will drip off the end of the strip.

As a second choice, 2% tincture of iodine can be
used. Add 5 drops to each quart of clear water, and let
stand 30 minutes. 24 If the water is cloudy, add 10
drops to each quart. Commercial water purification
tablets should be used as directed.

If neither safe water nor chemicals for
disinfecting it are available during a crisis, store
plenty of the best water at hand — even muddy river
water. Most mud settles to the bottom in a few days;
even in a crowded shelter ways often could be found
to boil water. Bringing water to a boil for one minute
kills all types of disease-causing bacteria/ 4 Boiling
for 10 to 20 minutes is required to kill some rarer
infective organisms.

SOURCES OF WATER IN FALLOUT AREAS

Survivors of a nuclear attack should realize that
neither fallout particles nor dissolved radioactive
elements or compounds can be removed from water
by chemical disinfection or boiling. Therefore, water
should be obtained from the least radioactive sources
available. Before a supply of stored drinking water

has been exhausted, other sources should be located.
The main water sources are given below, with the
safest source listed first and the other sources listed in
decreasing order of safety.

1. Water from deep wells and from water tanks
and covered reservoirs into which no fallout particles
or fallout-contaminated water has been introduced.
(Caution: Although most spring water would be safe,
some spring water is surface water that has flowed
into and through underground channels without
having been filtered.)

2. Water from covered seepage pits or shallow,
hand-dug wells. This water is usually safe IF fallout
or fallout-contaminated surface water has been
prevented from entering by the use of waterproof
coverings and by waterproofing the surrounding
ground to keep water from running down outside the
well casing. Figure 8.9 is taken from a Chinese civil
defense manual/ 1 It shows a well dug to obtain safe
water from a fallout-contaminated source. If the
earth is not sandy, gravelly, or too porous, filtration
through earth is very effective.

3. Contaminated water from deep lakes. Water
from a deep lake would be much less contaminated by
dissolved radioactive material and fallout particles
than water from a shallow pond would be, if both had
the same amount of fallout per square foot of surface
area deposited in them. Furthermore, fallout parti-
cles settle to the bottom more rapidly in deep lakes
than in shallow ponds, which are agitated more by
wind.

4. Contaminated water from shallow ponds and
other shallow, still water.

5. Contaminated water from streams, which
would be especially dangerous if the stream is muddy
from the first heavy rains after fallout is deposited.

Fig. 8.9. A water-filtering well. This Chinese
drawing specifies that this well should be dug 5 to 10
meters (roughly 5 to 10 yards) from a pond or stream.

The first runoff will contain most of the radioactive
material that can be dissolved from fallout particles
deposited on the drainage area. 2 ’ Runoff after the
first few heavy rains following the deposit of fallout is
not likely to contain much dissolved radioactive
material, or fallout.

6. Water collected from fallout-contaminated
roofs. This would contain more fallout particles than
would the runoff from the ground.

7. Water obtained by melting snow that has
fallen through air containing fallout particles, or
from snow lying on the ground onto which fallout has
fallen. Avoid using such water for drinking or
cooking, if possible.

WATER FROM WELLS

The wells of farms and rural homes would be the
best sources of water for millions of survivors.
Following a massive nuclear attack, the electric
pumps and the pipes in wells usually would be useless.
Electric power in most areas would be eliminated by
the effects of electromagnetic pulse (EMP) from
high-altitude bursts and by the effects of blast and fire
on power stations, transformers, and transmission
lines. However, enough people would know how to
remove these pipes and pumps from wells so that bail-
cans could be used to reach water and bring up
enough for drinking and basic hygiene.-

How to make a simple bail-can is illustrated in
Fig. 8.10. An ordinary large fruit-juice can will serve,
if its diameter is at least 1 inch smaller than the

ORNL-DWG 78^69IR

WIRE
THROUGH
SMALL
NAIL HOLES
A CAN TOP
WITH 4-mi
PLASTIC FILM
TAPED ON.
FOR TIGHT
SEAL (OR A
PIECE OF
INNERTU8
RUBBER)

CIRCULAR. UNATTACHED

Fig. 8.10. Lower part of an expedient bail-can.

The unattached, “caged” valve can be made of a
material that does not have the springiness of soft
rubber.

diameter of the well-casing pipe. A hole about 1 inch
in diameter should be cut in the center of the can’s
bottom. The hole should be cut from the inside of the
can: this keeps the inside of the bottom smooth, so it
will serve as a smooth seat fora practically watertight
valve. To cut the hole, stand the can on a flat wood
surface and press down repeatedly with the point of a
sheath knife, a butcher knife, or a sharpened
screwdriver.

The best material for the circular, unattached
valve shown in Fig. 8.10 is soft rubber, smooth and
thin, such as inner-tube rubber. Alternately, the lid of
a can about % inch smaller in diameter than the bail-
can may be used, with several thicknesses of plastic
film taped to its smooth lower side. Plastic film about
4 mils thick is best. The bail (handle) of a bail-can
should be made of wire, with a loop at the top to
which a rope or strong cord should be attached.

Filling-time can be reduced by taping half-a-
pound of rocks or metal to the bottom of the bail-can.

REMOVING FALLOUT PARTICLES AND
DISSOLVED RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL
FROM WATER

The dangers from drinking fallout-
contaminated water could be greatly lessened by
using expedient settling and filtration methods to
remove fallout particles and most of the dissolved
radioactive material. Fortunately, in areas of heavy
fallout, less than 2% of the radioactivity of the fallout
particles contained in the water would become
dissolved in water. 25 If nearly all the radioactive
fallout particles could be removed by filtering or
settling methods, few casualties would be likely to
result from drinking and cooking with most fallout-
contaminated water.

• Filtering

Filtering through earth removes essentially all of
the fallout particles and more of the dissolved
radioactive material than does boiling-water distilla-
tion, a generally impractical purification method that
does not eliminate dangerous radioactive iodines.
Earth filters are also more effective in removing
radioactive iodines than are ordinary ion-exchange
water softeners or charcoal filters. In areas of heavy
fallout, about 99% of the radioactivity in water could
be removed by filtering it through ordinary earth. To
make the simple, effective filter shown in Fig. 8.1 1,
the only materials needed are those found in and

ORNL DWG 77-18431

EXPEDIENT FILTRATION

Fig. 8.11. Expedient filter to remove
radioactivity from water.

around the home. This expedient filter can be built
easily by proceeding as follows:

1. Perforate the bottom of a 5-gallon can, a
large bucket, a watertight wastebasket, or a similar
container with about a dozen nail holes. Punch the
holes from the bottom upward, staying within about
2 inches of the center.

2. Place a layer about 1 V 2 inches thick of washed
pebbles or small stones on the bottom of the can. If
pebbles are not available, twisted coat-hanger wires
or small sticks can be used.

3. Cover the pebbles with one thickness of
terrycloth towel, burlap sackcloth, or other quite
porous cloth. Cut the cloth in a roughly Circular
shape about 3 inches larger than the diameter of the
can.

4. Take soil containing some clay — almost any
soil will do — from at least 4 inches below the surface
of the ground. (Nearly all fallout particles remain
near the surface except after deposition on sand or
gravel.)

5. Pulverize the soil, then gently press it in layers
over the cloth that covers the pebbles, so that the
cloth is held snugly against the sides of the can. Do
not use pure clay (not porous enough) or sand (too
porous). The soil in the can should be 6 to 7 inches
thick.

6. Completely cover the surface of the soil layer
with one thickness of fabric as porous as a bath towel.
This is to keep the soil from being eroded as water is
poured into the filtering can. The cloth also will
remove some of the particles from the water. A dozen
small stones placed on the cloth near its edges will
secure it adequately.

7. Support the Filter can on rods or sticks placed
across the top of a container that is larger in diameter
than the filter can. (A dishpan will do.)

The contaminated water should be poured into
the filter can, preferably after allowing it to settle as
described below. The filtered water should be
disinfected by one of the previously described
methods.

If the 6 or 7 inches of filtering soil is a sandy clay
loam, the filter initially will deliver about 6 quarts of
clear water per hour. (If the filtration rate is faster
than about 1 quart in 10 minutes, remove the upper
fabric and recompress the soil.) After several hours,
the rate will be reduced to about 2 quarts per hour.

When the filtering rate becomes too slow, it can
be increased by removing and rinsing the surface
fabric, removing about l / 2 inch of soil, and then
replacing the fabric. The life of a filter is extended and
its efficiency increased if muddy water is first allowed
to settle for several hours in a separate container, as
described below. After about 50 quarts have been
filtered, rebuild the filter by replacing the used soil
with fresh soil.

• Settling

Settling is one of the easiest methods to remove
most fallout particles from water. Furthermore, if the
water to be used is muddy or murky, settling it before
filtering will extend the life of the filter. The
procedure is as follows:

1. Fill a bucket or other deep container three-
quarters full of the contaminated water.

2. Dig pulverized clay or clayey soil from a
depth of four or more inches below ground surface,
and stir it into the water. Use about a 1-inch depth of

dry clay or dry clayey soil for every 4-inch depth of
water. Stir until practically all the clay particles are
suspended in the water.

3. Let the clay settle for at least 6 hours. The
settling clay particles will carry most of the suspended
fallout particles to the bottom and cover them.

4. Carefully dip out or siphon the clear water,
and disinfect it.

• Settling and Filtering

Although dissolved radioactive material usually
is only a minor danger in fallout-contaminated water,
it is safest to filter even the clear water produced by
settling, if an earth Filter is available. Finally — as
always — the water should be disinfected.

POST-FALLOUT REPLENISHMENT
OF STORED WATER

When fallout decays enough to permit shelter
occupants to go out of their shelters for short periods,
they should try to replenish their stored water. An
enemy may make scattered nuclear strikes for weeks
after an initial massive attack. Some survivors may be
forced back into their shelters by the resultant fallout.
Therefore, all available water containers should be
used to store the least contaminated water within
reach. Even without Filtering, water collected and
stored shortly after the occurrence of fallout will
become increasingly safer with time, due particularly
to the rapid decay of radioactive iodines. These
would be the most dangerous contaminants of water
during the first few weeks after an attack.

Chapter 9
Food

MINIMUM NEEDS

The average American is accustomed to eating
regularly and abundantly. He may not realize that
for most people food would not be essential for
survival during the first two or three weeks following
a nuclear attack. Exceptions would be infants, small
children, and the aged and sick, some of whom might
die within a week without proper nourishment. Other
things are more important for short-term survival:
adequate shelter against the dangers from blast and
fallout, an adequate supply of air, and enough
water.

The average American also may not realiz.e that
small daily amounts of a few unprocessed staple
foods would enable him to survive for many months,
or even for years. A healthy person- if he is deter-
mined to live and if he learns how to prepare and
use whole-grain wheat or corn — can maintain his
health for several months. If beans are also available
and are substituted for some of the grain, the ration
would be improved and could maintain health for
many months.

The nutritional information given in this chapter
is taken from a July, 1979 publication. Maintaining
Nutritional Adequacy During a Prolonged Food
Crisis. 26 This book brings together from worldwide
sources the nutritional facts needed to help unpre-
pared people use unaccustomed foods advanta-
geously during the prolonged crisis that would follow
a heavy nuclear attack. The practical know-how
which will be given in this chapter regarding the
expedient processing and cooking of basic grains
and beans is based on old ways which are mostly
unknown to modern Americans. These methods have
been improved and field-tested by civil defense
researchers at Oak Ridge National Laboratory.

LOSS OF HIGH-PROTEIN ANIMAL FOODS

A massive nuclear attack would eliminate the
luxurious, complicated American system of food
production, processing, and distribution. Extensive,
heavy fallout and the inability of farmers to feed
their animals would kill most of the cattle, hogs, and
chickens that are the basis of our high-protein diet.
The livestock most likely to survive despite their
owners’ inability to care for them would be cattle on
pasture. However, these grazing animals would
swallow large numbers of fallout particles along with
grass, and many would drink contaminated water.
Their digestive tracts would suffer severe radiation
damage." Also, they would suffer radiation burns
from fallout particles. Thus in an outdoor area where
the total dose from gamma radiation emitted within
a few days from fallout particles on the ground might
be only 150 R, most grazing animals probably would
be killed by the combined effects of external gamma-
ray radiation, beta burns, and internal radiation. 2,

PRECAUTIONS WHEN EATING MEAT

In areas where the fallout would not be enough
to sicken animals, their meat would be safe food. In
fallout areas, however, animals that have eaten or
drunk fallout-contaminated food or water will have
concentrated radioactive atoms and molecules in
their internal organs. The thyroid gland, kidneys,
and liver especially should not be eaten.

If an animal appears to be sick, it should not be
eaten. The animal might be suffering from a sickening
or fatal radiation dose and might have developed a
bacterial infection as a result of this dose. Meat
contaminated with the toxins produced by some
kinds of bacteria could cause severe illness or death
if eaten, even if thoroughly cooked.

Under crisis conditions, all meat should be
cooked until it is extremely well done— cooked long
past the time when it loses the last of its pink color.
To be sure that the center of each piece of meat is
raised to boiling temperature, the meat should be cut
into pieces that are less than ‘/ 2 -inch thick before
cooking. This precaution also reduces cooking time
and saves fuel.

SURVIVAL OF BREEDING STOCK

Extensive areas of the United States would not
receive fallout heavy enough to kill grazing animals.
The millions of surviving animals would provide
some food and the fertile breeding stock needed for
national recovery. The loss of fertility caused by
severe radiation doses is rarely permanent. Extensive
experiments with animals have shown that the
offspring of severely irradiated animals are healthy
and fertile. 27

LIVING ON BASIC PLANT FOODS

Even if almost all food-producing animals were
lost, most surviving Americans should be able to
live on the foods that enable most of the world’s
population to live and multiply: grains, beans, and
vegetables. And because of the remarkable produc-
tivity of American agriculture, there usually would
be enough grain and beans in storage to supply
surviving Americans with sufficient food for at least
a year following a heavy nuclear attack. 28 The
problem would be to get the unprocessed foods,
which are stored in food-producing regions, to the
majority of survivors who would be outside these
regions.

Surprisingly little transportation would be
needed to carry adequate quantities of these un-
processed foods to survivors in famine areas. A single
large trailer truck can haul 40,000 pounds of
wheat — enough to keep 40,000 people from feeling
hunger pains for a day. More than enough such
trucks and the fuel needed to carry basic foods to
food-short areas would survive a massive nuclear
attack.' 8 It is likely that reasonably strong American
leadership and morale would prevail so that, after
the first few weeks, millions of the survivors in
starving areas should receive basic unprocessed
foods.

Eating food produced in the years after a large
attack would cause an increase in the cancer rate,
due primarily to its content of radioactive strontium

and cesium from fallout-contaminated soil. Over the
first 30 years following an attack, this increase would
be a small fraction of the number of additional cancer
deaths that would result from external radiation. 29
Cancer deaths would be one of the tragic, delayed
costs of a nuclear war, but all together would not be
numerous enough to endanger the long-term survival
of the population.

LIVE OFF THE LAND?

Very few survivors of a heavy attack would be
in areas where they could live off the land like
primitive hunters and gatherers. In extensive areas
where fallout would not be heavy enough to kill
human beings, wild creatures would die from the
combined effects of external gamma radiation,
swallowed fallout particles, and beta burns on their
bodies. Survival plans should not include dependence
on hunting, fishing, or gathering wild plants.

FOOD FOR SHELTER OCCUPANTS

Most people would need very little food to live
several weeks; however, the time when survivors
of blast and fallout would leave their shelters would
mark the beginning of a much longer period of
privation and hard manual labor. Therefore, to
maintain physical strength and morale, persons in
shelters ideally should have enough healthful food
to provide well-balanced, adequate meals for many
weeks.

In most American homes there are only enough
ready-to-eat, concentrated foods to last a few days.
Obviously, it would be an important survival ad-
vantage to keep on hand a two-week supply of easily
transportable foods. In any case, occupants of
shelters would be uncertain about when they could
get more food and would have to make hard decisions
about how much to eat each day. (Those persons
who have a fallout meter, such as the homemade
instrument described in Chapter 10, could estimate
when and for how long they could emerge from
shelter to find food. As a result, these persons could
ration their limited foods more effectively.)

During the first few weeks of a food crisis, lack
of vitamins and other essentials of a well-balanced
diet would not be of primary importance to pre-
viously well-nourished people. Healthful foods with
enough calories to provide adequate energy would
meet short-term needs. If water is in short supply,
high-protein foods such as meat are best eaten only

in moderation, since a person eating high-protein
foods requires more water than is needed when
consuming an equal number of calories from foods
high in carbohydrates.

EXPEDIENT PROCESSING OF GRAINS
AND SOYBEANS

Whole-kernel grains or soybeans cannot be eaten
in sufficient quantities to maintain vigor and health if
merely boiled or parched. A little boiled whole-kernel
wheat is a pleasantly chewy breakfast cereal, but
experimenters at Oak Ridge got sore tongues and very
loose bowels when they tried to eat enough boiled
whole-kernel wheat to supply even half of their daily
energy needs. Some pioneers, however, ate large
quantities of whole-kernel wheat without harm-
ful results after boiling and simmering it for
many hours. Even the most primitive peoples who
subsist primarily on grains grind or pound them
into a meal or paste before cooking. (Rice is the only
important exception.) Few Americans know how to
process whole-kernel grains and soybeans (our largest
food reserves) into meal. This ignorance could be fatal
to survivors of a nuclear attack.

Making an expedient metate, the hollowed-out
grinding stone of Mexican Indians, proved im-
practical under simulated post-attack conditions.
Pounding grain into meal with a rock or a capped,
solid-ended piece of pipe is extremely slow work.
The best expedient means developed and field-tested
for pounding grain or beans into meal and flour is
an improvised 3-pipe grain mill. Instructions for
making and using this effective grain-pounding
device follow.

Improvised Grain Mill

The grain mill described can efficiently pound
whole-grain wheat, corn, etc., into meal and
flour — thereby greatly improving digestibility and
avoiding the diarrhea and sore mouths that would
result from eating large quantities of unground
grain.

TO BUILD:

(1) Cut 3 lengths of pipe, each 30 inches long;
' 4 -inch-diameter steel pipe (such as ordinary
water pipe) is best.

(2) Cut the working ends of the pipe off squarely.
Remove all roughness, leaving the full-wall
thickness. Each working end should have the full
diameter of the pipe.

(3) In preparation for binding the three pieces of
pipe together into a firm bundle, encircle each

piece of pipe with cushioning, slip-prevent-
ing tape, string or cloth — in the locations
illustrated.

(4) Tape or otherwise bind the 3 pipes into a secure
bundle so that their working ends are as even as
possible and are in the same plane — resting
evenly on a flat surface.

(5) Cut the top smoothly out of a large can. A
4-inch-diameter, 7-inch-high fruit-juice can is
ideal. If you do not have a can, improvise some-
thing to keep grain together while pounding it.

ORNL- DWG 73-H449

TO MAKE MEAL AND FLOUR:

(1) Put clean, dry grain ONE INCH DEEP in the
can.

(2) To prevent blistering your hands, wear gloves,
or wrap cloth around the upper part of the
bundle of pipes.

(3) Place the can (or open-ended cylinder) on a hard,
smooth, solid surface, such as concrete.

(4) To pound the grain, sit with the can held between
your feet. Move the bundle of pipes straight
up and down about 3 inches, with a rapid
stroke.

(5) If the can is 4 inches in diameter, in 4 minutes
you should be able to pound 'fa lb (one cup) of
whole-kernel wheat into Vs lb of fine meal and
flour, and 3 /jo lb of coarse meal and fine-cracked
wheat.

(6) To separate the pounded grain into fine meal,
flour, coarse meal, and fine-cracked wheat, use
a sieve made of window screen.

(7) To separate flour for feeding small children,
place some pounded grain in an 18 X 18-inch
piece of fine nylon net, gather the edges of the
net together so as to hold the grain, and shake
this bag-like container.

(8) To make flour fine enough for babies, pound fine
meal and coarse flour still finer, and sieve it
through a piece of cheesecloth or similar
material.

As soon as fallout decay permits travel, the
grain-grinding machines on tens of thousands of hog
and cattle farms should be used for milling grain for
survivors. It is vitally important to national recovery
and individual survival to get back as soon as possible
to labor-saving, mechanized ways of doing essential
work.

In an ORNL experiment, a farmer used a
John Deere Grinder-Mixer powered by a 100-hp
tractor to grind large samples of wheat and barley.
When it is used to grind rather coarse meal for hogs,
this machine is rated at 12 tons per hour. Set to grind
a finer meal-flour mixture for human consumption,
it ground both hard wheat and feed barley at a rate
of about 9 tons per hour. This is 2400 times as fast
as using muscle power to operate even the best ex-
pedient grain mill. With its finest screen installed,
this large machine can produce about 3 tons of whole
wheat flour per hour.

Unlike wheat and corn, the kernels of barley,
grain sorghums, and oats have rough, fibrous hulls

that must be removed from the digestible parts to
produce an acceptable food. Moistening the grain
will toughen such hulls and make them easier to
remove. If the grain is promptly pounded or ground
into meal, the toughened hulls will break into larger
pieces than will the hulls of undampened grain. A
small amount of water, weighing about 2% of the
weight of the grain, should be used to dampen the
grain. For 3 pounds of grain (about 6 cups), sprinkle
with about one ounce (28 grams, or about 2
tablespoons) of water, while stirring constantly to
moisten all the kernels. After about 5 minutes of
stirring, the grain will appear dry. The small amount
of water will have dampened and toughened the
hulls, but the edible parts- inside will have remained
dry. Larger pieces of hull are easier to remove after
grinding than smaller pieces.

One way to remove ground-up hulls from meal
is by flotation. Put some of the meal-hulls mixture
about 1 inch deep in a pan or pot, cover the mixture
with water, and stir. Skim off the floating hulls,
then pour off the water and more hulls. Sunken pieces
of hulls that settle on top of the heavier meal can be
removed with one’s fingers as the last of the water
is poured off. To produce a barley meal good for
very small children, the small pieces of hulls must
again be separated by flotation.

Figure 9.1 illustrates sieving fine, dry barley-
meal and the smaller pieces of hulls from the coarser

Fig. 9. 1 . Sieving ground barley through a window-
screen sieve.

meal and the larger pieces. The sieve was made of
a piece of window screen that measured 20 X 20
inches before its sides were folded up and wired to
form an open-topped box.

To lessen their laxative effects, all grains should
be ground as finely as possible, and most of the hulls
should be removed. Grains also will be digested more
easily if they are finely ground. The occupants of
crowded shelters should be especially careful to avoid
foods that cause diarrhea.

COOKING WITH MINIMUM FUEL

In areas of heavy fallout, people would have to
remain continuously in crowded shelters for many
days. Then they would have to stay in the shelters
most of each 24 hours for weeks. Most shelter
occupants soon would consume all of their ready-
to-eat foods; therefore, they should have portable,
efficient cook stoves. A cook stove is important for
another reason: to help maintain morale. Even in
warm weather, people need some hot food and drink
for the comforting effect and to promote a sense
of well-being. This is particularly true when people
are under stress. The Bucket Stove pictured on the
following pages (Figs. 9.2 and 9.3) was the most
satisfactory of several models of expedient stoves
developed at Oak Ridge and later field-tested.

• Bucket Stove

If operated properly, this stove burns only about
' : pound of dry wood or newspaper to heat 3 quarts
of water from 60° F to boiling.

Materials required for the stove:

* A metal bucket or can, 12- to 16-quart sizes
preferred. The illustrations show a 14-quart bucket
and a 6-quart pot.

* Nine all-metal coat hangers for the parts
made of wire. (To secure the separate parts of the
movable coat-hanger wire grate, 2 feet of finer wire
is helpful.)

* A 6 X 10-inch piece of a large fruit-juice
can, for a damper.

Construction:

With a chisel (or a sharpened screw driver) and
a hammer, cut a 4 1 ; X 4‘/’-inch hole in the side of
the bucket about l 1 .: inches above its bottom. To
avoid denting the side of the bucket when chiseling
out the hole, place the bucket over the end of a log or
similar solid object.

To make the damper, cut a 6-inch-wide by
10-inch-high piece out of a large fruit-juice can or
from similar light metal. Then make the two coat-
hanger-wire springs illustrated, and attach them to
the piece of metal by bending and hammering the
outer 1 inch of the two 6-inch-long sides over and
around the two spring wires. This damper can be slid
up and down, to open and close the hole in the
bucket. The springs hold it in any desired position. ( If
materials for making this damper are not available,
the air supply can be regulated fairly well by placing
a brick, rock, or piece of metal so that it will block
off part of the hole in the side of the bucket.)

To make a support for the pot, punch 4 holes
in the sides of the bucket, equally spaced around it
and about 3% inches below the bucket’s top. Then
run a coat-hanger wire through each of the two pairs
of holes on opposite sides of the bucket. Bend these
two wires over the top of the bucket, as illustrated, so
that their four ends form free-ended springs to hold
the cooking pot centered in the bucket. Pressure on
the pot from these four free-ended, sliding springs
does not hinder putting it into the stove or taking
it out.

Bend and twist 4 or 5 coat hangers to make the
movable grate, best made with the approximate
dimensions given in Fig. 9.2.

For adjusting the burning pieces of fuel on the
grate, make a pair of 12-inch-long tongs of coat-
hanger wire, as illustrated by Fig. 9.3.

To lessen heat losses through the sides and
bottom of the bucket, cover the bottom with about
1 inch of dry sand or earth. Then line part of the inside
and bottom with two thicknesses of heavy-duty
aluminum foil, if available.

To make it easier to place the pot in the stove
or take it out without spilling its contents, replace the
original bucket handle with a longer piece of strong
wire.

Operation:

The Bucket Stove owes its efficiency to: (1) the
adjustable air supply that flows up through the
burning fuel, (2) the movable grate that lets the
operator keep the maximum amount of flame in
contact with the bottom of the cooking pot, and
(3) the space between the sides of the pot and the
inside of the bucket that keeps the rising hot gases
in close contact with the sides of the pot.

In a shelter, a Bucket Stove should be placed
as near as practical to an air exhaust opening before
a fire is started in it.

Fig. 9.2. Bucket-stove with adjustable damper and movable wire grate

Fig. 9.3. Bucket-stove with its sliding damper partly closed. Foot-long tongs of coat hanger wire
are especially useful when burning twisted half-pages of newspaper.

If wood is to be burned, cut and split dry wood
into small pieces approximately '/z inch square and
6 inches long. Start the fire with paper and small
slivers of wood, placing some under the wire grate.
To keep fuel from getting damp in a humid shelter,
keep it in a large plastic bag.

If newspaper is to be burned, use half-pages
folded and twisted into 5-inch-long “sticks,” as
illustrated. Using the wire tongs, feed a paper “stick”
into the fire about every half-minute.

Add fuel and adjust the damper to keep the
flame high enough to reach the bottom of the pot,
but not so high as to go up the sides of the pot.

To use the Bucket Stove for heating in very
cold weather, remove the pot and any insulation
around the sides of the bucket; burn somewhat more
fuel per minute.

If used with the Fireless Cooker described on
the following pages, a Bucket Stove can be used
to thoroughly cook beans, grain, or tough meat
in water. Three quarts of such food can be cooked
with less fuel than is required to soft-boil an egg
over a small campfire.

• Fireless Cooker

A Fireless Cooker cooks by keeping a lidded
pot of boiling-hot food so well insulated all around
that it loses heat very slowly. Figure 9.4 shows one
of these simple fuel-saving devices made from a
bushel basket filled with insulating newspapers,
with a towel-lined cavity in the center. The cavity is
the size of the 6-quart pot. A towel in this cavity goes
all around the pot and will be placed over it to restrict
air circulation. If the boiling-hot pot of food is then
covered with newspapers about 4 inches thick, the
temperature will remain for hours so near boiling
that in 4 or 5 hours even slow-cooking food will be
ready to eat.

The essential materials for making an effective
Fireless Cooker are enough of any good insulating
materials (blankets, coats, paper, hay that is dry and
pliable) to cover the boiling-hot pot all over with at
least 3 or 4 inches of insulation. A container to keep
the insulating materials in place around the pot is
useful.

Wheat, other grains, and small pieces of tough
meat can be thoroughly cooked by boiling them
briskly for only about 5 minutes, then insulating
the pot in a Fireless Cooker for 4 or 5 hours, or

Fig. 9.4. Boiling-hot pot of food being placed in
an expedient Fireless Cooker.

overnight. Whole beans should be boiled for 10 to
15 minutes before they are placed in a Fireless
Cooker.

COOKING GRAIN AND BEANS WHEN
SHORT OF FUEL OR POTS

• Cooking Grain Alone

When whole grains are pounded or ground by
expedient means, the result usually is a mixture of
coarse meal, fine meal, and a little flour. Under
shelter conditions, the best way to cook such meal
is first to bring the water to a boil (3 parts of water
for 1 part of meal). Add 1 teaspoon (5 grams) of salt
per pound of dry meal. Remove the pot from the fire
(or stop adding fuel to a Bucket Stove) and quickly
stir the meal into the hot water. (If the meal is stirred
into briskly boiling water, lumping becomes a worse
problem.) Then, while stirring constantly, again
bring the pot to a rolling boil. Since the meal is just
beginning to swell, more unabsorbed water remains,
so there is less sticking and scorching than if the meal
were added to cold water and then brought to
a boil.

If any type of Fireless Cooker is available, the
hot cereal only has to be boiled and stirred long
enough so that no thin, watery part remains. This
usually takes about 5 minutes. Continue to cook,
either in the Fireless Cooker for at least 4 or 5 hours,
or by boiling for an additional 15 or 20 minutes.

When it is necessary to boil grain meal for many
minutes, minimize sticking and scorching by cook-
ing 1 part of dry meal with at least 4 parts of water.
However, cooking a thinner hot cereal has a dis-
advantage during a food crisis: an increased volume
of food must be eaten to satisfy one’s energy
needs.

If grain were the only food available, few
Americans doing physical work could eat enough
of it to maintain their weight at first, until their
digestive tracts enlarged from eating the very bulky
foods. This adaptation could take a few months.
Small children could not adjust adequately to an
all-grain diet; for them, concentrated foods such as
fats also are needed to provide enough calories to
maintain growth and health.

• Cooking Grain and Beans Together

When soybeans are being used to supplement the
lower quality proteins of grain and when fuel or pots
are in short supply, first grind or pound the beans into a
fine meal. To further reduce cooking time, soak the
bean meal for a couple of hours, keeping it covered with
water as it swells. Next put the soaked bean meal into a
pot containing about 3 times as much water as the
combined volume of a mixture of 1 part of dry
bean meal and 3 or 4 parts of dry grain meal.
Gently boil the bean meal for about 1 5 minutes, stirring
frequently, before adding the grain meal and
completing the cooking.

Stop boiling and add the grain meal while stirring
constantly. Again bring the pot to a boil, stirring to
prevent sticking and scorching, and boil until the meal
has swelled enough to have absorbed all the water.
After salting, boil the grain-bean mush for another 15
minutes or more before eating, or put it in a fireless
cooker for at least 4 or 5 hours.

Soybeans boiled alone have a taste that most
people find objectionable. Also, whole soybeans must
be boiled for a couple of hours to soften them
sufficiently. But if soybeans are pounded or ground
into a fine meal, and then 1 part of the soybean meal
is boiled with 4 parts of meal made from corn or
another grain, the soybeans give a pleasant
sweetish taste to the resulting mush. The un-
pleasant soybean taste is eliminated. If cooked as
described above, soybeans and other beans or dried
peas can be made digestible and palatable with mini-
mum cooking.

100% GRAIN AND 100% BEAN DIETS

A diet consisting solely of wheat, corn, or rice,
and salt has most of the essential nutrients. The
critical deficiencies would be vitamins A, C, and D.
Such a grain-based diet can serve adults and older
children as their “staff of life” for months. Table 9.1
shows how less than 1% pounds of whole wheat
or dry yellow corn satisfies most of the essential
nutritional requirements of a long-term emergency
ration. [The nutritional values that are deficient are
printed in bold type, to make an easier comparison
with the Emergency Recommendations, also printed
in bold type. Food energy is given in kilocalories
(kcal), commonly called calories (Cal).] Expedient
ways of supplying the nutrients missing from these
rations are described in a following section of this
chapter.

Other common whole grains would serve about
as well as wheat and yellow corn. At least ! /6 0 zofsalt
per day (about 5 grams) is essential for any ration
that is to be eaten for more than a few days, but '/) oz
(about 10 g or % tablespoon) should be available
to allow for increased salt needs and to make grain
and beans more palatable. This additional salt would
be consumed as needed.

To repeat: few Americans at first would be able
to eat the 3 or 4 quarts of thick mush that would be
necessary with a ration consisting solely of whole-
kernel wheat or corn. Only healthy Americans
determined to survive would be likely to fare well
for months on such unaccustomed and monotonous
food as an all-grain diet. Eating two or more different
kinds of grain and cooking in different ways would
make an all-grain diet both more acceptable and
more nourishing.

Not many people would be able to eat 27 oz
(dry weight before cooking) of beans in a day, and
fewer yet could eat a daily ration of almost 23 oz
of soybeans. Beans as single-food diets are not
recommended because their large protein content
requires the drinking of more fluids. Roasted peanuts
would provide a better single-food ration.

GRAIN SUPPLEMENTED WITH BEANS

People who live on essentially vegetarian diets
eat a little of their higher-quality protein food at every
meal, along with the grain that is their main source
of nutrition. Thus Mexicans eat some beans along
with their corn tortillas, and Chinese eat a little
fermented soybean food or a bit of meat or fish with
a bowl of rice. Nutritionists have found that grains

Table 9.1. Daily rations of 100% grain, beans, or peanuts"

Wheat

(dry)

Yellow

Field

Corn 1 ’

(dry)

Emergency

Recommendations

Soybeans

(dry)

Red Beans
(dry)

Peanuts

(roasted)

Weight

790g
(27.X oz)

750g
(26.4 oz)

645g
(22.7 oz)

760g
(26.8 oz)

447g
(15.8 oz)

Energy, kcal

2600

2600

2600

2600

2600

2600

Protein, g

103

67

55‘

220

171

117

Fat. g

15

29

30

114

11

218

Calcium, mg

324

165

400

1458

836

322

Magnesium, mg

1260

1100

200 300

1710

1240

782

Iron, mg

26

15.7

10

54.2

52.4

9.8

Potassium, mg

2920

2130

1500 2000

10800

7420

3132

Vitamin A. RE

0

368

555

52

15

0

Thiamin, mg

4.3

2.8

1.0

7.1

3.9

1.3

Riboflavin, mg

1.0

0.9

1.4

2.0

1.5

0.6

Niacin, mg

34.0

16.5 J

17.0

14.2

17.5

76.4

Vitamin C. mg

0

0

15-30

0

0

0

Vitamin D. Mg

0

0

0'

0

0

0

Salt (' i oz. or 10 g. or 'j tablespoon) should be available. This would be consumed as needed.

White corn supplies no Vitamin A. whereas yellow corn supplies 49 RE (retinol equivalent, a measure of Vitamin A value)
per 100 g dry weight. Most corn in the United States is yellow corn.

If a diet contains some animal protein such as meat, eggs, or milk, the recommended protein would be less than 55 g per day.
If most of the protein is from milk or eggs, only 41 g per day is recommended.

"The niacin in corn is not fully available unless the corn is treated with an alkali, such as the lime or ashes Mexicans (and
many Americans) add to the water in which corn kernels are soaked or boiled.

■Infants, children, and pregnant and lactating women should receive IO//g( !0micrograms,or400IU)of vitamin D. For
others, the current recommended daily allowance (RDA) for vitamin D is 200 IU (5/tg).

are low in some of the essential amino acids that the
human body needs to build its proteins. For long-term
good health, the essential amino acids must be supplied
in the right proportions with each meal by eating some
foods with more complete proteins than grains have.
Therefore, in a prolonged food crisis one should strive
to eat at every meal at least a little of any higher-quality
protein foods that are available. These include ordinary
beans, soybeans, milk powder, meat, and eggs.

Table 9.2 shows that by adding 7.0 oz (200 g) of
red beans (or other common dried beans) to 21.1 oz
(600 g) of either whole wheat or yellow corn, with salt
added, you can produce rations that contain adequate
amounts of all the important nutrients except vitamin
C, vitamin A, vitamin D, and fat. If 5.3 oz (150 g) of
soybeans are substituted for the red beans, the fat
requirement is satisfied. The 600 g of yellow corn
contains enough carotene to enable the body to
produce more than half the emergency recommendation
of vitamin A. The small deficiencies in riboflavin would
not cause sickness.

Other abundant grains, such as grain sorghums or
barley, may be used instead of the wheat or corn shown
in Table 9.2 to produce fairly well-balanced rations.
Other legumes would serve to supplement grain about
as well as red beans. (Peanuts are the exception: al-
though higher in energy (fat) than any other unprocessed

food, the quality of their protein is not as high as that of
other legumes.)

EXPEDIENT WAYS TO SUPPLY DEFICIENT
ESSENTIAL NUTRIENTS

• Vitamin C

A deficiency of vitamin C (ascorbic acid) causes
scurvy. This deadly scourge would be the first nutri-
tional disease to afflict people having only grain and/or
beans and lacking the know-how needed to sprout
them and produce enough vitamin C. Within only 4 to
6 weeks of eating a ration containing no vitamin C, the
first symptom of scurvy would appear: swollen and
bleeding gums. This would be followed by weakness,
then large bruises, hemorrhages, and wounds that
would not heal. Finally, death from hemorrhages and
heart failure would result.

The simplest and least expensive way to
make sure that you, your family and neighbors
do not suffer or die post-attack from scurvy is to
buy one kilogram (1,000,000 milligrams) of pure
vitamin C, which is the crystalline “ascorbic
acid” form. Unlike vitamin C tablets, pure vita-
min C crystals do not deteriorate. An inexpensive
mailorder source is Bronson Pharmaceutical,
4526 Rinetti Lane, La Canada, California 91011;

Table 9.2. Daily rations of whole wheat or yellow corn supplemented with soybeans or red beans.
Recommended daily salt ration, including salt in food: % tablespoon Ch oz, or 10 g)-

600g (21.1 0 /)
Whole wheal plus
200g (7.0 07 )

Red beans (dry wl)

600g (21.1 07 )
Whole wheat plus
I50g (5.3 07 )
Soybeans (dry wt)

Emergency

Recommendations

600g (21.1 07 )
Yellow corn" plus
I50g (5.3 07 )
Soybeans (dry wt)

600g (21.1 0 /)
Yellow corn plus
200g (7.0 07 )
Red beans (dry wt

Energy, kcal

2.666

2.585

2.600

2.693

2.774

Protein, g

123

129

55*

105

98

Eat. g

15

39

30

50

26

Calcium, mg

466

585

400

471

352

Magnesium, mg

1.286

1.358

200 300

1.280

1.208

Iron, mg

33.6

32.4

10

25.2

26.4

Potassium, mg

4.188

4.736

1.500 2.000

4.220

3.672

Vitamin A. RF.

4

12

555

306

298

t hiamin, mg

4.3

5.0

1.0

3.9

3.2

Riboflavin, mg

l.l

1.2

1.4

1.2

1.1

Niacin, mg

30.4

29.1

17.0

16.5'

17.8

Vitamin C. mg

0

0

15 30

0

0

Vitamin D. qg

0

0

0 J

0

0

White corn supplies no Vitamin A. whereas yellow corn supplies 49RE (retinol equivalent, a measure of vitamin A value)
per lOOg dry weight. Most com in the United States is yellow corn.

If a diet contains animal protein such as meat, eggs or milk, the recommended protein would be less than 55g per day. If all
the protein is from milk or eggs, only 4lg per day is required.

The niacin in corn is not fully available unless corn is treated with an alkali, such as the lime or ashes added by Mexicans
and Americans in the South and Southwest to the water in which they soak or boil corn kernels.

Infants, children, and pregnant and lactating women should receive 10^g( 10 micrograms, or 400 IU) of vitamin D. For
others, the current recommended daily allowance (RDA) for vitamin D is 200 IU (5 pg).

in 1988 1 bought one kilogram for $18.75, postage
paid. An ample daily dose is 25 milligrams,
about 0.0009 ounce. Ten grams (about one third
ounce) is enough for a whole year for one person
who is eating only unsprouted grain and/or
other foods providing no vitamin C. One gram
(1,000 mg) of crystalline ascorbic acid is V 4
teaspoonful. If you do not have a l A teaspoon,
put one level teaspoonful of the crystals on a
piece of paper, and divide the little pile into 4
equal parts; each will be approximately 1,000
mg. One of these 1,000 mg piles can easily be
divided into 4 tiny piles, each 250 mg. A 250 mg
pile provides 10 ample daily doses of 25 mg
each. If your family has g 1,000,000 mg supply,
taking a 50 mg daily dose of pure crystalline
ascorbic acid may be preferred, either sprinkled
on food or dissolved in water.

One good expedient way to prevent or cure scurvy
is to eat sprouted seeds — not just the sprouts.
Sprouted beans prevented scurvy during a famine in
India. Captain James Cook was able to keep his sailors
from developing scurvy during a three-year voyage by
having them drink an unfermented beer made from
dried, sprouted barley. For centuries the Chinese have
prevented scurvy during the long winters of northern
China by consuming sprouted beans.

Only 10 mg of vitamin C taken each day (1/5 of
the smallest vitamin C tablet) is enough to prevent
scurvy. If a little over an ounce (about 30 grams) of dry

beans or dry wheat is sprouted until the sprouts are a
little longer than the seeds, the sprouted seeds will
supply 10 to 15 mg of vitamin C. Such sprouting, if
done at normal room temperature, requires about 48
hours. To prevent sickness and to make sprouted beans
more digestible, the sprouted seeds should be boiled in
water for not longer than 2 minutes. Longer cooking
will destroy too much vitamin C.

Usual sprouting methods produce longer sprouts
than are necessary when production of enough vitamin
C is the objective. These methods involve rinsing the
sprouting seeds several times a day in safe water. Since
even survivors not confined to shelters arc likely to be
short of water, the method illustrated in Fig. 9.5 should
be used. First the seeds to be sprouted are picked clean
of trash and broken seeds. Then the seeds are covered
with water and soaked for about 12 hours. Next, the
water is drained off and the soaked, swollen seeds are
placed on the inside of a plastic bag or ajar, in a layer
no more than an inch deep. If a plastic bag is used, you
should make two loose rolls of paper, crumple them a
little, dampen them, and place them inside the bag,
along its sides. As shown in Fig. 9.5, these two
dampened paper rolls keep the plastic from resting on
the seeds and form an air passage down the center of
the bag. Wet paper should be placed in the mouth of the
bag or jar so as to leave an air opening of only about 1
square inch. If this paper is kept moist, the seeds will
remain sufficiently damp while receiving enough circula-
ting air to prevent molding. They will sprout sufficiently
after about 48 hours at normal room temperature.

Fig. 9.5. Sprouting with minimum water.

Sprouting seeds also increases their content
of riboflavin, niacin, and folic acid. Sprouted beans
are more digestible than raw, unsprouted beans, but
not as easily digested or nourishing as are sprouted
beans that have been boiled or sauteed for a couple
of minutes. Sprouting is not a substitute for cooking.
Contrary to the claims of some health food publi-
cations, sprouting does not increase the protein
content of seeds, nor does it improve protein quality.
Furthermore, sprouting reduces the caloric value of
seeds. The warmth generated by germinating seeds
reduces their energy value somewhat, as compared
to unsprouted seeds.

• Vitamin A

Well-nourished adults have enough vitamin A
stored in their livers to prevent vitamin A deficiency
problems for several months, even if their diet during
that time contains none of this essential vitamin.
Children would be affected by deficiencies sooner
than adults. The first symptom is an inability to see
well in dim light. Continuing deficiency causes
changes in body tissues. In intants and children,
lack of vitamin A can result in stunted growth and
serious eye problems — even blindness. Therefore, a
survival diet should be balanced with respect to
vitamin A as soon as possible, with children having
priority.

Milk, butter, and margarine are common
vitamin A sources that would not be available to
most survivors. If these were no longer available,

yellow corn, carrots, and green, leafy vegetables
(including dandelion greens) would be the best
sources. If these foods were not obtainable, the next
best source would be sprouted whole-kernel wheat
or other grains — if seeds could be sprouted for three
days in the light, so that the sprouts are green.
Although better than no source, sprouting is not
a very satisfactory way to meet vitamin A require-
ments. The development of fibrous roots makes
3-day sprouted wheat kernels difficult to eat. And
one must eat a large amount of seeds with green
sprouts and roots to satisfy the recommended daily
emergency requirements — up to 5% cups of 5-day
sprouted alfalfa seeds. Survivors of a nuclear attack
would wish they had kept an emergency store of
multivitamin pills.

• Vitamin D

Without vitamin D, calcium is not adequately
absorbed. As a result, infants and children would
develop rickets (a disease of defective bone mineral-
ization). A massive nuclear attack would cut off
the vast majority of Americans from their main
source of vitamin D, fortified milk.

Vitamin D can be formed in the body if the
skin is exposed to the ultraviolet rays of the sun.
Infants should be exposed to sunlight very cau-
tiously, initially for only a few minutes — especially
after a massive nuclear attack. Such an attack
possibly could cause atmospheric changes that would
permit more ultraviolet light to reach the earth's
surface, causing sunburn in the U.S. as severe
as on the equator today. In cold weather, maxi-
mum exposure of skin to sunlight is best done in a
shallow pit shielded from the wind. Exposure in a
shallow pit would give about 90 percent pro-
tection from gamma radiation from fallout
particles on the surrounding ground.

* Niacin and Calcium

Niacin deficiency causes pellagra, a disease that
results in weakness, a rash on skin exposed to the
sun, severe diarrhea, and mental deterioration. If a
typical modern American had a diet primarily of
corn and lacked the foods that normally supply
niacin, symptoms of pellagra would first appear in
about 6 months. Since corn is by far our largest
crop — the U.S. production in 1985 was about 425
billion pounds - the skillful treatment of corn would
be important to post-attack survival and recovery.

During the first part of this century, pellagra
killed thousands of Americans in the South each
year. These people had corn for their principal staple
and ate few animal protein foods or beans. Yet

Mexicans, who eat even more corn than did those
Southerners— and have even fewer foods of animal
origin— do not suffer from pellagra.

The Mexicans’ freedom from pellagra is mainly
due to their traditional method of soaking and
boiling their dried corn in a lime-water solution.
They use either dry, unslaked lime (calcium oxide, a
dangerously corrosive substance made by roasting
limestone) or dry, slaked lime (calcium hydroxide,
made by adding water to unslaked lime). Dry lime
weighing about 1% as much as the dry corn is added
to the soak water, producing an alkaline solution.
Wood ashes also can be used instead of lime to make
an alkali solution. The alkali treatment of corn makes
the niacin available to the human body. Tables 9.1
and 9.2 show corn as having adequate niacin.
However, the niacin in dried corn is not readily
available to the body unless the corn has received
an alkali treatment.

Treating corn with lime has another nutritional
advantage: the low calcium content of corn is signifi-
cantly increased.

• Fat

The emergency recommendation for fat is
slightly over 1 ounce per day (30 g) of fat or cooking
oil. This amount of fat provides only 10% of fhe
calories in the emergency diet, which does not specify
a greater amount because fats would be in very short
supply after a nuclear attack. This amount is very low
when compared to the average diet eaten in this
country, in which fat provides about 40% of the
calories. It would be difficult for many Americans to
consume sufficient calories to maintain normal
weight and morale without a higher fat intake; more
fat should be made available as soon as possible.
Increased fat intake is especially important for young
children, to provide calories needed for normal
growth and development. Oak Ridge National
Laboratory field tests have shown that toddlers and
old people, especially, prefer considerably more oil
added to grain mush than the emergency recom-
mendation of 10%.

• Vitamin B-12 and Animal Protein

Vitamin B-12 is the only essential nutrient that is
available in nature solely from animal sources. Since
a normal person has a 2 to 4-year supply of vitamin
B-12 stored in his liver, a deficiency should not

develop before enough food of animal origin would
again be available.

Many adults who are strict vegetarians keep
in good health for years without any animal sources
of food by using grains and beans together. It is
more difficult to maintain normal growth and
development in young children on vegetarian diets.
When sufficient animal sources of food are available,
enough should be provided to supply 7 grams of
animal protein daily. This could be provided by
about 1 .4 ounces (38 g) of lean meat, 0.7 ounce (20 g)
of nonfat dry milk, or one medium-sized egg. When
supplies are limited, young children should be given
priority. Again: a little of these high-grade supple-
mentary protein foods should be eaten with every
meal.

• Iron

Most people live out their lives without benefit
of an iron supplement. However, many pregnant
and nursing women and some children need
supplemental iron to prevent anemia. One tested
expedient way to make more iron available is to use
iron pots and pans, especially for cooking acid foods
such as tomatoes. Another is to place plain iron nails
(not galvanized nails) in vinegar until small amounts
of iron begin to float to the surface. This usually takes
2 to 4 weeks. Then a teaspoon of iron-vinegar
solution will contain about 30 to 60 mg of iron,
enough for a daily supplement. The emergency
recommendation is 10 mg per day. A teaspoon of the
iron-vinegar solution is best taken in a glass of water.
The iron content of fruit, such as an apple, can be
increased by placing iron nails in it for a few days.

FOOD RESERVES

Russia, China, and other countries that make
serious preparations to survive disasters store large
quantities of food— primarily grain — both in farming
areas and near population centers. In contrast, the
usually large U.S. stocks of grain and soybeans are
an unplanned survival resource resulting from the
production of more food than Americans can eat or
sell abroad. The high productivity of U.S. agriculture
is another unplanned survival asset. Providing
enough calories and other essential nutrients for
100 million surviving Americans would necessitate
the annual raising of only about 12% of our 1985
crop of corn, wheat, grain sorghum, and soybeans
— if nothing else were produced. In 1985, the U.S.

production of corn, wheat, soybeans, and grain
sorghum totalled about 625 billion pounds —
about 7 pounds per day for one year for every
American. A total of 2 pounds per person per day of
these basic staples, in the proportions shown in Table
9.2, would be sufficient to provide the essentials of an
adequate vegetarian diet weighing about 27 ounces.
(Grain sorghum is not listed in Table 9.2; it has
approximately the same food value as corn.) The
remaining 5 ounces of the 2 pounds would feed enough
chickens to meet a survivor’s minimum long-term re-
quirement for animal protein.

If corn, wheat, grain sorghum, and soybeans were
the only crops raised, the annual production would need
to be only 730 pounds per person. Our 1985 annual
production would have supplied every adult,
child, and infant in a population of 100 million
with 6250 pounds of these four staples. This is
more than 8 times enough to maintain good
nutrition by Chinese standards.

Recovery from a massive nuclear attack would
depend largely on sufficient food reserves being available
to enable survivors to concentrate on restoring the
essentials of mechanized farming. Enough housing
would remain intact or could be built to provide
adequate shelter for the first few crucial years; enough
clothing and fabrics would be available. But if survivors
were forced by hunger to expend their energies at-
tempting primitive subsistence farming, many deaths
from starvation would occur and the prospects for
national recovery would be greatly reduced.

Americans’ greatest survival asset at the end
of 1985 was about 17 billion bushels (about 850
billion pounds) of wheat, corn, grain sorghums,
and soybeans in storage, mostly on farms. If 200
million Americans were to survive a limited
nuclear attack and if only half of this stored food
reserve could be delivered to the needy, each

survivor would have adequate food for over 3
years, by Chinese nutritional standards.

In view of the crucial importance of large food
reserves to the prospects for individual and national
survival, it is to be hoped that U.S. food surpluses and
large annual carry-overs will continue.

A BASIC SURVIVAL RATION TO STORE

A ration composed of the basic foods listed below in
Table 9.3 provides about 2600 calories per day and is
nutritionally balanced. It keeps better than a ration of
typical American foods, requires much less space to store
or transport, and is much less expensive. The author and
some friends have stored enough of these basic foods to
last their families several months during a crisis, and
have eaten large quantities of these foods with satis-
faction over the past 20 years. (A different emergency
ration should be stored for infants and very small
children, as will be explained in the following section.)
Field tests have indicated that the majority of Americans
would find these basic foods acceptable under crisis
conditions. In normal times, however, no one should
store this or any other emergency food supply until after
he has prepared, eaten, and found its components
satisfactory.

Unprocessed grains and beans provide adequate
nourishment for many millions of the world’s people
who have little else to eat. Dry grains and beans are very
compact: a 5-gallon can holds about 38 pounds of hard
wheat. Yet when cooked, dry whole grains become bulky
and give a well-fed feeling — a distinct advantage if it is
necessary to go on short rations during a prolonged
crisis.

This basic ration has two disadvantages: (1) it
requires cooking, and (2) Americans are un-
accustomed to such a diet. Cooking difficulties can
be minimized by having a grain-grinding device, a

Table 9.3. A basic survival ration for multi-year storage

Ounces
per day

Grams
per day

Pounds
for 30 days
full ration

Kilograms
for 30 days
full ration

Whole-kernel hard wheat

16

454

30.0

13.6

Beans

5

142

9.4

4.3

Non-fat milk powder

2

57

3.8

1.7

Vegetable oil

1

28

1.9

0.9

Sugar

2

57

3.8

1.7

Salt (iodized)

'/,

10

0.63

0.3

Total Weights

26 '/>

748

49.5

22.5

Multi-vitamin pills:

1 pill each day

bucket stove with a few pounds of dry wood or
newspapers for fuel, and the know-how to make a
'Tireless cooker” by using available insulating ma-
terials such as extra clothing. The disadvantage of
starting to eat unaccustomed foods at a stressful
time can be lessened by eating more whole grains
and beans in normal times — thereby, incidentally,
saving money and improving a typical American
diet by reducing fat and increasing bulk and fiber.

When storing enough of this ration to last for
several months or a year, it is best to select several
kinds of beans for variety and improved nutrition.
If soybeans are included, take into account the dif-
ferences between soybeans and common beans, as
noted earlier in this chapter.

In many areas it is difficult to buy wheat and
beans at prices nearly as low as the farmer receives
for these commodities. However, in an increasing
number of communities, at least one store sells
whole-grain wheat and beans in large sacks at
reasonable prices. Mormons, who store food for a
range of possible personal and national disasters, are
often the best sources of information about where
to get basic foods in quantity, at reasonable cost.
Soon after purchase, bulk foods should be removed
from sacks (but not necessarily from sealed-plastic
liner-bags) and sealed in metal containers or in
thick-walled plastic containers for storage. Especially
in the more humid parts of the United States, grain
and beans should be frequently checked for moisture.
If necessary, these foods should be dried out and
rid of insects as described later in this chapter.

Vegetable oil stores as well in plastic bottles as
in glass ones. The toughness and lightness of plastic
bottles make them better than glass for carrying
when evacuating or for using in a shelter. Since a
pound of oil provides about 2 V< times as much energy
as does a pound of sugar, dry grain, or milk powder,
storing additional vegetable oil is an efficient way
to improve a grain diet and make it more like the
409£-fat diet of typical Americans.

All multivitamin pills providing 5000 Inter-
national Units (1500 mg retinol equivalent) vitamin
A, 400 IU (10 mg) of vitamin D, and 50 to 100 mg
of vitamin C, must meet U.S. Government standards,
so the least expensive usually are quite adequate.
Storage in a refrigerator greatly lengthens the time
before vitamin pills must be replaced with fresh
ones. Because vitamin C is so essential, yet very

inexpensive and long-lasting, it is prudent to store
a large bottle.

It would be wise to have on hand ready-to-eat,
compact foods for use during a week or two in a
shelter, in addition to those normally kept in the
kitchen. It is not necessary to buy expensive “survival
foods” or the special dehydrated foods carried by
many backpackers. All large food stores sell the
following concentrated foods: non-fat milk powder,
canned peanuts, compact ready-to-eat dry cereals
such as Grape Nuts, canned meat and fish, white
sugar, vegetable oil in plastic bottles, iodized salt,
and daily multivitamin pills. If shelter occupants
have a way to boil water (see Figs. 9.2 and 9.3, Bucket
Stove), it is advisable to include rice, noodles, and an
“instant” cooked cereal such as oatmeal or
wheat — along with coffee and tea for those who
habitually drink these beverages.

Parched grain is a ready-to-eat food that has
been used for thousands of years. Whole-kernel
wheat, corn, and rice can be parched by the following
method: Place the kernels about '/4-inch deep in a
pan, a skillet, or a tin can while shaking it over a
flame, hot coals, or a red hot electric burner. The
kernels will puff and brown slightly when parched.
These parched grains are not difficult to chew and can
be pounded to a meal more easily than can the raw
kernels. Parched grain-stores well if kept dry and free
of insects.

EMERGENCY FOOD FOR BABIES

Infants and very small children would be the
first victims of starvation after a heavy nuclear
attack, unless special preparations are made on their
behalf. Our huge stocks of unprocessed foods, which
could prevent the majority of unprepared survivors
from dying of hunger, would not be suitable for the
very young. They need foods that are more con-
centrated and less rough. Most American mothers do
not nurse their infants, and if a family’s supply of
baby foods were exhausted the parents might ex-
perience the agony of seeing their baby slowly
starve.

Few Americans have watched babies starving.
In China, I saw anguish on starving mothers’ faces
as they patted and squeezed their flat breasts, trying
to get a little more milk into their weak babies’
mouths. I saw this unforgettable tragedy in the midst
of tens of thousands of Chinese evacuating on foot
before a ruthless Japanese army during World
War II. Years later, my wife and I stored several

hundred pounds of milk powder while our five
children were small. I believe that parents who fear
the use of nuclear weapons will be glad to bear the
small expense of keeping on hand the emergency
baby foods listed in Table 9.4, below. (More de-
tailed descriptions of these and many other foods,
with instructions for their use, are given in an Oak
Ridge National Laboratory report, Maintaining
Nutritional Adequacy During A Prolonged Food
Crisis, ORNL-5352, 1979. This report may be
purchased for $6.50 from National Technical In-
formation Service, U.S. Department of Commerce,
5385 Port Royal Road, Springfield, Virginia 22161.)

To make a formula adequate for a 24-hour
period, the quantities of instant non-fat dry milk,
vegetable cooking oil, and sugar listed in the “Per
Day” column of Table 9.4 should be added to 4 cups
of safe water. This formula can be prepared daily in
cool weather or when a refrigerator is available.
In warm or hot weather, or under unsanitary con-
ditions, it is safer to make a formula 3 times a day.
To do so, add % cup plus 2 teaspoons (a little less
than one ounce) of instant non-fat milk powder
to 1 S cups (' 3 pint) of boiled water, and stir
thoroughly. Then add I tablespoon (about */i ounce,
or 9 grams) of vegetable oil and 2 teaspoons of sugar,
and stir. (If regular bakers’ milk powder is used, '/a
cup is enough when making one-third of the daily
formula, 3 times a day.) If baby bottles are not at
hand, milk can be spoon-fed to an infant.

Especially during a war crisis, the best and
most dependable food for an infant is mother’s
milk -provided the mother is assured an adequate
diet. The possibility of disaster is one more reason

why a mother should nurse her baby for a full year.
Storing additional high-protein foods and fats for
a nursing mother usually will be better insurance
against her infant getting sick or starving than
keeping adequate stocks of baby foods and the
equipment necessary for sanitary feeding after
evacuation or an attack.

To give a daily vitamin supplement to a baby, a
multivitamin pill should be crushed to a fine powder
between two spoons and dissolved in a small amount
of fluid, so that the baby can easily swallow it. If an
infant does not receive adequate amounts of vitamins
A, D, and C, he will develop deficiency symptoms
in 1 to 3 months, depending on the amounts stored
in his body. Vitamin C deficiency, the first to appear,
can be. prevented by giving an infant 15 mg of
vitamin C each day (about % of a 50-mg vitamin C
tablet, pulverized) or customary foods containing
vitamin C, such as orange juice. Lacking these
sources, the juice squeezed from sprouted grains
or legumes can be used. If no vitamin pills or foods
rich in vitamin D are available, exposure of the
baby’s skin to sunlight will cause his body to produce
vitamin D. It would be wise to wait about 30 days
after an attack before exposing the baby to sunlight.
After that, short exposures would be safe except
in areas of extremely heavy fallout. As a further
precaution, the baby can be placed in an open,
shallow pit that will provide shielding from radiation
given off by fallout particles on the ground. Initial
exposure should be very short, no more than
10 minutes.

If sufficient milk is not obtainable, even infants
younger than six months should be given solid food.
Solid foods for babies must be pureed to a fine

Ingredients

Table 9.4. Emergency food supply for one baby.

Per Day Per Mon t h Per6 Months

Volumes and Ounces Grams Pounds Kilograms Pounds Kilograms

Instant non-fat dry milk

1 cup + 2
tablespoons
(2 ' j oz)

8

6

2.72

32

15

Vegetable cooking oil

3 tablespoons
(1 oz)

30

2

0.90

12

5.5

Sugar

2 tablespoons
(0.7 oz)

20

1.3

0.60

8

3.6

Standard daily multi-vitamin

1 , pill

10 pills

60 pills

pills

texture. Using a modern baby food grinder makes
pureeing quick and easy work. Under crisis con-
ditions, a grinder should be cleaned and disinfected
like other baby-feeding utensils, as described later in
this section.

Several expedient methods are available: the
food can be pressed through a sieve, mashed with
a fork or spoon, or squeezed through a porous cloth.
Good sanitation must be maintained; all foods
should be brought to a boil after pureeing to insure
that the food is safe from bacteria.

A pureed solid baby food can be made by first
boiling together 3 parts of a cereal grain and 1 part
of beans until they are soft. Then the mixture should
be pressed through a sieve. The sieve catches the
tough hulls from the grain kernels and the skins
from the beans. The grain-beans combination will
provide needed calories and a well-supplemented
protein. The beans also supply the additional iron
that a baby needs by the time he is 6 months old.
Flours made from whole grains or beans, as pre-
viously described, also can be used; however, these
may contain more rough material.

Some grains are preferable to others. It is easier
to sieve cooked corn kernels than cooked wheat
kernels. Since wheat is the grain most likely to cause
allergies, it should not be fed to an infant until he
is 6 to 7 months old if other grains, such as rice or
corn, are available.

Small children also need more protein than can
be supplied by grains alone. As a substitute for milk,
some bean food should be provided at every meal. If
the available diet is deficient in a concentrated energy
source such as fat or sugar, a child’s feedings should
be increased to 4 or 5 times a day, to enable him to
assimilate more. Whenever possible, a small child
should have a daily diet that contains at least one
ounce of fat (3 tablespoons, without scraping the
spoon). This would provide more than 10% of a
young child's calories in the form of fat, which would
be beneficial.

If under emergency conditions it is not practical
to boil infant feeding utensils, they can be steriliz.cd
with a bleach solution. Add one teaspoon of ordinary
household bleach to a quart of water. (Ordinary
household bleach contains 5.25% sodium hypo-
chlorite as its only active ingredient and supplies
approximately 5% available chlorine. If the strength

of the bleach is unknown, add 3 teaspoons per quart.)
Directions for safe feeding without boiling follow:

The Utensils (Include at least one 1-quart and one
1-pint mason jar, for keeping prepared
formula sterile until used.)

1. Immediately after feeding, wash the inside
and outside of all utensils used to prepare the formula
and to feed the infant.

2. Fill a covered container with clean, cold
water and add the appropriate amount of chlorine
bleach.

3. Totally immerse all utensils until the next
feeding (3 or 4 hours). Be sure that the bottle, if used,
is filled with bleach solution. Keep container
covered.

At Feeding Time

1. Wash hands before preparing food.

2. Remove utensils from the disinfectant chlo-
rine solution and drain, but do not rinse or dry.

3. Prepare formula; feed the baby.

4. Immediately after feeding, wash utensils in
clean water and immerse again in the disinfectant
solution.

5. Prepare fresh chlorine solution each day.

STORAGE OF FOODS

Whole grains and white sugar can be stored
successfully for decades; dried beans, non-fat milk
powder, and vegetable oil can be stored for several
years. Some rules for good storage follow:

• Keep food dry. The most dependable way to
assure continuing dryness is to store dry grain in
metal containers, such as ordinary 5-gallon metal
storage cans or 55-gallon metal drums with gasketed
lids. Filled 5-gallon cans are light enough to be easily
carried in an automobile when evacuating.

Particularly in humid areas, grain which seems
to be dry often is not dry enough to store for a long
period. To be sure that grain is dry enough to store
for years, use a drying agent. The best drying agent
for this purpose is silica gel with color indicator.
The gel is blue when it is capable of absorbing water
and pink when it needs to be heated to become an

effective drying agent again. Silica gel is inexpensive if
bought from chemical supply firms located in most cities.
By heating it in a hot oven or in a can over a fire Until it
turns blue again, silica gel can be used repeatedly for
years.

The best containers for the silica gel used to dry
grain (or to determine its dryness) are homemade cloth
envelopes large enough for a heaping cupful of the gel. A
clear plastic window should be stitched in, through
which color changes can be observed. Put an evelope of
silica gel on top of the grain in a 5-gallon can filled to
within a couple of inches of its top. Then close the can
tightly. Even a rather loose-fitting lid can be sealed
tightly with tape. If after a few days the silica gel is still
blue, the grain is dry enough. If the silica gel has turned
pink, repeat the process with fresh envelopes until it can
be seen that the grain is dry.

• Keep grains and beans free of weevils, other insects,
and rodents. Dry ice (carbon dioxide) is the safest means
still widely available to the public for ridding grain and
beans of insects. Place about 4 inches of dry ice on top of
the grain in a 5-gallon metal container. Put the lid on
somewhat loosely, so that air in the grain can be driven
out of the can. (This will happen as the dry ice vaporizes
and the heavy carbon dioxide gas sinks into the grain and
displaces the air around the kernels.) After an hour or
two, tighten the lid and seal it with tape. After one
month, all insects in this carbon-dioxide atmosphere will
have died from lack of oxygen.

• Store foods in the coolest available place, out of the
light. Remember that the storage life of most foods is cut
in half by an increase of 18°F (10°C) in storage
temperature. 30 Thus 48 months of storage at 52° F is
equivalent to 24 months at 70° F, and to 12 months at
88° F.

Illustrative of the importance of cool storage are my
experiences in storing non-fat milk powder in an earth-
covered. cool shelter. In steel drums I stored unopened
100-pound bags of compact, non-fat milk powder that I
bought from bakeries. The cost per pound was much less
than I would have paid for the largest packages sold in
supermarkets. After 7 years storage at temperatures of
about 50° F the year around, my milk powder was still
good — as good as it would have been if stored in a
normally air-conditioned and heated home for about 3
years.

• Do not place stored metal containers directly on the
floor. To avoid possible condensation of moisture and
the rusting that results, place containers on spaced
boards. For long-term storage in damp permanent
shelters or damp basements, use solid-plastic containers
with thick walls.

• Rotate stored foods. Eat the oldest food of each type
and replace it with fresh food. Although cooking oil and
non-fat milk powder remain edible after several years of
storage at room temperature, these and most other dry
foods are more nourishing and taste better if stored for
no more than 2 years. Most canned foods taste better if
kept no more than one year. Exceptions are whole grains
and white sugar, which stay good for decades if stored
properly.

• Store plenty of salt. In our modern world salt is
so abundant and cheap that most Americans do
not realize that in many areas soon after a major
nuclear attack salt would become a hard-to-get
essential nutrient. Persons working hard without
salt would suffer cramps and feel exhausted
within a few days. Most famine relief shipments
of grain probably would not include salt. So store
enough salt both to salt your family’s food for
months and to trade for other necessities.

SEEDS

For thousands of years storing seeds has
been an essential part of the survival prepara-
tions made by millions of prudent people fearing
attack. Seeds are hopes for future food and the
defeat of famine, that lethal follower of disas-
trous wars.

Among the most impressive sounds I ever
heard were faint, distant rattles of small stones,
heard on a quiet, black, freezing night in 1944.
An air raid was expected before dawn. I was
standing on one of the bare hills outside
Kunming, China, trying to pinpoint the sources
of lights that Japanese agents had used just
before previous air raids to guide attacking
bombers to blacked-out Kunming. Puzzled by
sounds of cautious digging starting at about
2:00 AM, I asked my interpreter if he knew what
was going on. He told me that farmers walked
most of the night to make sure that no one was
following them, and were burying sealed jars of
seeds in secret places, far enough from homes

so that probably no one would hear them dig-
ging. My interpreter did not need to tell me that
if the advancing Japanese troops succeeded in
taking Kunming they would ruthlessly strip
the surrounding countryside of all food they
could find. Then those prudent farmers would
have seeds and hope in a starving land.

If you doubt that enough of our current
"oversupply” of stored whole grains, soybeans,
milk powder, etc. would reach you after a nuclear
attack, you should store seeds known to grow
well in your area.

When getting your supply of survival seeds,
remember:

• Grains and beans are the best plant sources

of energy and protein.

• Even if you have enough vitamins for
several months, you may not be able to buy
more until long after a nuclear war.

• The deadly curses of scurvy, vitamin A.
deficiencies, and pellagra can be prevented by
eating the plants, seeds, and sprouted seeds
described earlier in this chapter.

• Plants grown from hybrid seeds give larger
yields, but do not produce as productive seeds
as do plants grown from good non-hybrid seeds.

• Seeds of proven productivity in your lo-
cality may be more valuable than money after a
major nuclear attack.

• You should get and store mostly non-hybrid
seeds, after learning from experienced local
gardeners which are best.

Chapter 10

Fallout Radiation Meters

THE CRITICAL NEED

A survivor in a shelter that does not have a
dependable meter to measure fallout radiation —
or that has one but lacks someone who knows how to
use it — will face a prolonged nightmare of uncertainties.
Human beings cannot feel, smell, taste, hear, or see
fallout radiation. A heavy attack would put most radio
stations off the air, due to the effects of electromagnetic
pulse, blast, fire, or fallout from explosions. Because
fallout intensities often vary greatly over short distances,
those stations still broadcasting would rarely be able to
give reliable information concerning the constantly
changing radiation dangers around a survivor’s shelter.

Which parts of the shelter give the best protection?
How large is the radiation dose being received by each
person? When is it safe to leave the shelter for a few
minutes? When can one leave for an hour’s walk to get
desperately needed water? As the fallout continues to
decay, how long can one safely work each day outside
the shelter? When can the shelter be left for good? Only
an accurate, dependable fallout meter will enable
survivors to answer these life-or-death questions.

Gamma radiation is by far the most dan-
gerous radiation given off by fallout particles.
Gamma rays are like X rays, only more pene-
trating and harmful. The roentgen (R) is the unit
most commonly used to measure exposures to
gamma rays, or to X rays, and most American
civil defense instruments give readings in
roentgens (R) or roentgens per hour (R/hr).
Therefore, for simplicity’s sake, in this book
almost all radiation doses are given in roentgens
(R), and radiation dose rates are given in
roentgens per hour (R/hr). This simplification
is justified because, for external whole-body
gamma radiation from fallout, the numerical
value of an exposure or dose given in roentgens
is approximately the same, as the numerical

value given in rems or rads. (For information
on the rem and the rad, and on the seriousness
and probability of injuries likely to be suffered
as a result of receiving different sized doses of
gamma radiation, see “Lifetime Risks from
Radiation”, a section of Chapter 13.)

The dose (the quantity) of radiation that a
person receives, along with the length of time
during which the dose is received, determine
what injuries, if any, will be suffered as a result
of the dose. Of people who, in a few days, each
receive a dose of 350 roentgens under nuclear
war conditions, about half will die. Doses are
measured with small instruments called dosim-
eters, either by directly reading the dose between
the time at which a dosimeter is charged to read
zero and the time of a subsequent reading, or by
calculating by subtraction the dose between two
readings. However, to avoid receiving a lethal
or sickening dose, the most useful instrument is
a dose rate meter. The National Academy of
Sciences’ Advisory Committee on Civil Defense
in 1953 concluded: “The final effectiveness of
shelter depends upon the occupants of any
shelter having simple, rugged, and reliable
dose rate meters to measure the fallout dose rate
outside the shelter.”

With a reliable dose rate meter you can
quite quickly determine how great the radiation
dangers are in different places, and then prompt-
ly act to reduce your exposure to these unseen,
unfelt dangers. For example, if you go outside
an excellent fallout shelter and learn by reading
your dose rate meter that you are being exposed
to 30 R/hr, you know that if you stay there for
one hour you will receive a dose of 30 R. But if
you go back inside your excellent shelter after 2
minutes, then while outside you will have re-
ceived a dose of only 1 R. (2 minutes = 2/60 of an

hour =1/30 hr; and receiving a dose at the rate of
30 R/ hr for 1/30 hr results in a dose of 30 R/hr x
1/30 hr = 1R.) Under nuclear war conditions,
receiving an occasional dose of 1R (1,000 milli-
roentgens) would be of little concern, as ex-
plained in Chapter 13 and 18.

WARNINGS FOR BUYERS OF
FALLOUT METERS

You are “on your own” when buying a dose
rate meter or dosimeter because:

• No U.S. Government agency or other Gov-
ernment facility advises the public regarding
sources of the best available radiation-measur-
ing instruments for use in time of war, or warns
concerned individuals that certain instruments
are either incapable of measuring adequately
high dose rates or doses for wartime use, or are
dangerously inaccurate. For example, a dose
rate meter that in 1982 sold nationwide was
tested in that year at Oak Ridge National Labora-
tory to determine its accuracy for measuring
gamma radiation. This instrument was reason-
ably accurate at low dose rates, but at the high
dose rates of life or death importance in a
nuclear war its readings were dangerously low:
When it should have read 150 R/hr. it read 13.9
R/hr. Another dose rate meter of this same
model, tested in California by Dr. Bruce Clayton,
read only 16 R/hr when it should have read 400
R/hr. Obviously, if this model were used and
trusted by a person doing rescue work for hours
outdoors in heavy fallout, while believing that
he was receiving a non-incapacitating dose he
actually would be getting a fatal dose!

• Instruments that measure only milliroentgen-
range dose rates are sold for war use by some
companies. Since most Americans have no idea
what size of radiation doses would incapacitate
or kill them, and do not even know that a
milliroentgen is 1/1000 of a roentgen, some
people buy instruments that are capable of
measuring maximum dose rates of only one
roentgen or less per hour. For example, an
American company advertised and sold for
$370.00 in 1986 its dose rate meter that has a
maximum range of “0 - 1000 mR/hr.” It is the
only dose rate meter in that company’s listing of
"Radiation Detection Products for the General
Public”, described as “ . . . applicable for use in
case of nuclear war.” The highest dose rate that
it can measure, one roentgen per hour, is far too
low to be of much use in a nuclear war.

• Used and surplus dose rate meters and dosi-
meters are likely to be inaccurate or otherwise
unreliable. Very few buyers have access to a
radiation source powerful enough to check in-
struments for accuracy over their full ranges of

measurements. My education regarding bargain
fallout meters began in 1961, after I bought two
dosimeters of a model then being produced by a
leading manufacturing company and purchased
in quantity by the Office of Civil Defense.
W ithin a week after receiving these instruments,
one of them could not be charged. The other was
found to be inaccuate. Later I learned that the
manufacturing company sold to the public its
instruments that did not pass Government
quality tests.

Most Federal and State organizations do
not criticize faulty civil defense products, ap-
parently because they are not charged with this
responsibility and want to avoid angering manu-
facturers and sellers who may go to their Con-
gressmen or Legislators to seek redress for lost
sales.

In this book I am not giving the names of
any of the companies that sell or have sold
potentially life-endangering survival items. To
do so would reduce the chances of this book
being distributed or advocated by Government
agencies.

WAR RESERVES OF FALLOUT METERS

One of Americans’ most important assets
for surviving a nuclear war is the Federal
Emergency Management Agency’s (FEMA’s)
supply of fallout meters. These instruments
include approximately 600,000 dose rate meters
and about 3,300,000 dosimeters, all suitable for
wartime use. In 1986 almost all of these old
instruments — that can be found — reportedly still
are in good working condition. Because of con-
tinuing inadequate funding for civil defense, in
recent years most of FEMA’s instruments have
been serviced, calibrated, and, if necessary,
repaired only once every four years. In a few
localities these instruments are no longer being
serviced.

Most of these critically important instru-
ments are kept in cities, in buildings likely to be
destroyed by blast or fire in the event of a
massive Soviet attack. If there were a suffi-
ciently long, officially recognized period of
warning before an attack, it might be possible
during such a worsening crisis to move a large
fraction of these fallout meters outside the areas
of probable blast or fire damage, and to place
them in officially designated fallout shelters.
However, this unlikely development would not
provide private family shelters with instru-
ments.

Most families need their own fallout meters.
This need is greatest for families living in

localities not likely to be damaged by blast or fire,
and for those planning to evacuate to such less
hazardous localities during a worsening crisis.

COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE
FALLOUT METERS

In 1987 an American does not have many
choices if he wants to buy an off-the-shelf dose
rate meter suitable for measuring the high
levels of fallout radiation that would result from
a nuclear attack. Although inexpensive dose
rate meters and dosimeters have been under
development by the military services and civil
defense researchers for the past 15 years, they
have not been produced commercially for sale
to the public. Field tests of factory-produced
models have not been completed at this writing.

Dose Rate Meters

The best radiation-measuring instrument
for wartime use available in the United States in
1987 is the Universal Survey Meter RD-10,
manufactured in Finland by Alnor Oy. It is sold
in the United States by a subsidiary, Alnor
Nuclear, 2585 Washington Road, Suite 120, Pitts-
burg, Pennsylvania 15241. In 1988 the FOB
price, pre-paid, is $1,100.00. The RD-10 accurate-
ly measures gamma and X rays from very close
to natural background radiation up to 300 R/hr,
in two ranges (0.03 - 300 mR/hr, and 0.03 - 300
R/hr). It meets Finnish Army standards for
ruggedness and accurate operation in sub-zero
cold (down to -25°C, or -13°F); it has an illumi-
nated scale for night use and an audible pulse
rate signal, and is built to withstand electro-
magnetic pulse (EMP) effects. (A few of my
friends and I for years have owned Finnish
instruments of an earlier model, the RD-8; they
still are in excellent working condition.)

A less expensive dose rate meter designed
for rugged wartime use is the Portable Radiolog-
ical Dose Rate Meter PDRM 82, manufactured in
England by Plessey Controls Limited, Sopers
Lane, Poole, Dorset BH17 7ER, England. This
instrument is the current standard issue of the
British armed forces and civil defense, is de-
signed for a storage life of at least 20 years, is
microcortiputer controlled, EMP-proof, and dis-
plays “FAIL" if a fault exists. (Like all instru-
ments, occasionally a PDRM 82 does fail. One
bought by a friend in 1987 and tested by a radia-
tion laboratory in Utah read 86 centigrays per
hour when it should have read 300, and failed to
display “FAIL.” Mailed back to England, Plessey
Controls finally replaced it with another new
PDRM 82.) The only consequential disadvantages
of the PDRM 82, compared to more expensive
dose rate meters, are that it reads in centigrays
per hour (cGy/hr is equivalent to Rads/hr, or
R/hr) and does not measure dose rates lower than
0.1 cGy/hr (100 mR/hr). In 1987 this portable,
four-digit-liquid-display dose rate meter is sold
by Plessey Controls for 250 British pounds plus
air shipment charges — all pre-paid. To learn
the latest delivery date and the latest price
delivered direct by air, write Plessey Controls.

However, in a nuclear war 100 mR/hr will be a
low dose rate in most life-threatening fallout
areas. (I bought a PDRM 82 direct from England
in 1984, my objective being to have it tested at
Oak Ridge National Laboratory. I later learned
that such testing was unnecessary, since U.S.
Army specialists already had tested the PDRM
82 and had found it excellent.)

Technical Note. Conversion of readings of
most foreign and scientific radiation-monitoring
instruments to the radiation units usually given
by American civil defense instruments, or used
in the U.S. in regulations and articles concerning
radiation hazards:

ABSORBED RADIATION DOSE
1 gray (1 Gy) = 100 Rads
1 centigray (1 cGy) = 1 Rad
■ (As explained in the first section of this
chapter, for practical civil defense work
1 Rad = 1 roentgen = 1 Rem.)

DOSE EQUIVALENT

1 sievert (1 Sv) = 100 Rems
1 millisievert (1 mSv) = 0.1 Rem

ACTIVITY

1 bequerel (1 Bq) = 27 picocuries
(Radiation contamination of milk and
water are given in picocuries per liter,
or bequerels per liter. One picocurie is
one millionth of one millionth of a
curie; 1 curie is 37,000,000,000 bequerels.)

No wonder that most newspaper and tele-
vision accounts of radiation accidents and
hazards are confused!

I have not been able to find an American-
made, modern dose rate meter that is designed
for wartime use and is being sold in 1987.
Among those designed for peacetime use that
may be satisfactory in wartime is the RO-2A
manufactured by Eberline, P.O. Box 2108, Santa
Fe, New Mexico 87504-2108. The RO-2A is a
portable air ionization-chamber instrument
used to measure beta, gamma, and X-ray radia-
tion from 50 mR/hr to 50 R/hr. The price in 1987
is $950.00. In Eberline’s summary specifications
and in the specifications that I have read of
other U.S. manufacturers of dose rate meters, no
mention is made of the instruments’ being
EMP-proof.

Dosimeters

Several reliable dosimeters and dosimeter-
chargers are sold in the United States. Among
the established retail sources is Dosimeter Cor-
poration, P.O. Box 42377, Cincinnati, Ohio 45242.
Its DCA Model No. 686 measures accumulated
doses from 0 to 600 R, and in January of 1986 sold
for $59.95. The battery powered charger, DCA
Model No. 909, cost $90.00; one charger can be
used to charge several dosimeters.

A more expensive direct reading 600 R
dosimeter is model 019-006 of Atomic Products
Corporation, P.O. Box 1157, Center Moriches,
New York 11934. It sells for $120.00; dosimeter
charger 020-001, “ . . . used to ‘zero’ all Direct-
Reading Dosimeters”, costs $98.00.

To keep them dependable, all commercially
available dosimeters and dose rate meters
should be (1) kept supplied with fresh batteries
for charging or operating, (2) checked with a
strong enough radiation source (at no longer
than 3-year intervals) to see if they still are
measuring radiation accurately, and (3) repaired
if necessary. (To learn whether a dose rate
meter still is functioning, use a radioactive
check source such as Dosimeter Corporation’s
Check Source (Model 3001), that contains 5
microcuries cesium- 137 and sells for $35.00.
This type of check test will prove only that your
instrument measures dose rates slightly above
normal background radiation; it will not prove
that your instrument could accurately measure
the much higher dose rates that will be of vital
concern in a nuclear war. Some instrument
companies will properly calibrate a radiation
measuring instrument that is sent to them. For
example. Dosimeter Corporation charges $50.00
to calibrate a dose rate meter or dosimeter, and
makes needed repairs at an additional cost.)

The reader is advised to buy at least a good
commercial dose rate meter, with which to
quickly measure high levels of fallout radiation
—if he can afford one. A family that has a
reliable dose rate meter, and that remains in a
shelter almost all of the time during which
fallout dose rates outdoors are dangerously
high, can calculate with sufficient accuracy the
accumulated doses received by its members. To
do this, a continuous record must be kept of dose
rates and the times at which those measurements
are made. (Having a reliable dosimeter elimi-
nates the need for keeping such detailed records
and making these calculations, but if only one
instrument can be afforded it should be a dose
rate meter.) A good commercial instrument, if
properly maintained and periodically calibrated
with a radiation source to check its accuracy,
probably will be serviceable for years.

A prudent owner of even an excellent dose
rate meter would do well to make and learn to
use a KFM, the dependable homemakeable fall-
out meter briefly described later in this chapter,
with complete instructions for making and using
it given in Appendix C. Then during a period of
heavy war fallout you can check the readings of
your complex instrument by comparing them
with those of your KFM, and, if the complex
instrument is giving inaccurate readings, your
KFM will meet your basic need.

A HOMEMAKEABLE DOSE RATE METER,
THE KFM

• What is a KFM?

The only do-it-yourself fallout meter that is
accurate and dependable was invented in 1977.
It is called the KFM (Kearny Fallout Meter); one
is pictured in Fig. 10.1.

Fig. 10.1. A homemade KFM, an accurate dose
rate meter for measuring dose rates from 30 mR/hr
(0.03 R/hr) up to 43 R/hr.

This simple instrument has undergone
rigorous scientific testing in several laborato-
ries, including Oak Ridge National Laboratory;
its accuracy and dependability were confirmed.
Many hundreds of KFMs have been made by
untrained people, ranging from members of
junior high school science classes to grand-
mothers making them for their children and
grandchildren. These successful makers have
been guided Only by thoroughly field-tested
instructions and patterns not quite as good as
the improved ones given in Appendix C of this
updated book.

Only common materials found in millions
of homes are needed to build a KFM. (If all of the
materials, including those for a dry-bucket,
have to be purchased, their total cost in 1986 is
less than seventeen dollars.) The KFM serves as
an accurate dose rate meter when used in con-
junction with a watch and the KFM’s attached
table relating changes in readings in listed time
intervals to dose rates. No radiation source is

OBSERVED SEPARATION OF LOWER EDGES OF LEAVES (mm)

needed either to initially calibrate a KFM or
subsequently to check its accuracy. (Calibra-
tions for accuracy were completed at Oak Ridge
National Laboratory and are the basis of the
KFM’s attached table.) A KFM is more accurate
than most civil defense instruments, and its
accuracy is permanently established by the
laws of physics applicable to the specified
dimensions and other characteristics of its parts,
and to their positioning relative to each other-
provided that it is made and maintained accord-
ing to the instructions. Unlike all factory-made
radiation measuring civil defense instruments
that are reliable and available today, a KFM is
charged electrostatically. No battery is needed.

• Additional Advantages of KFMs

* A KFM combines the provenly practical
radiation measuring functions of an electro-
scope and of an ionization chamber having a
specified volume. Electroscopes were the basic

radiation measuring instruments used by scien-
tists, including Nobel Laureate Lord Rutherford,
who pioneered studies of atomic nuclei and
radiations. The author is indebted to another
Nobel Laureate physicist, Dr. Luis W. Alvarez,
for the idea of making a homemade electroscope
with two thread-suspended, aluminum-foil
leaves, to measure fallout radiation. Many ex-
cellent and unavoidably expensive dose rate
meters, including civil defense instruments, are
ionization chamber devices.

* A KFM, used in conjunction with a
watch, does not have to be charged to any
specified initial reading, or discharged by ex-
posure to radiation to any specified final reading,
to accurately measure the dose rate during a
time interval specified on its attached table. Fig.
10.2 illustrates this operational advantage of
KFMs.

ORNL-DWG 76-6548

I 1 1

ADJUSTED CALIBRATION CURVES OF KFM 20 G AND KFM 20 I
(BOTH HAVE 8-PLY LEAVES OF STANDARD ALUMINUM FOIL)
THE CALIBRATION READINGS HAVE ALL BEEN ADJUSTED
GRAPHICALLY TO SIMULATE ALL INITIAL LEAF SEPARATIONS
BEING EQUAL

20

18

16

14

12

10

8

6

4

-Q-x-

o= KFM 201 AT 2.5 R/hr, 60 sec EXPOSURES

* = KFM 201 AT 2.0 R/hr, 60 sec EXPOSURES

x = KFM 20 G AT 2.5 R/hr, 60 sec EXPOSURES

□ = KFM 20 G AT 2.0 R/hr, 60 sec EXPOSURES

* = KFM 20 G AT 10.0 R/hr, 30 sec EXPOSURES

-x-O-

4D

□ a

x

40

80 120
GAMMA DOSE (mR)

160

200

Fig. 10.2 Normalized Calibration Points for Two KFMs, Showing the Straight-Line
Relationship Between Milliroentgen Radiation DOSES and Resultant Readings. The
complete instructions for making and using a KFM (see Appendix C) explain how an
operator with a watch can use this instrument to accurately measure DOSE RATES.

• Additional Information on Accuracy
and Dependability

* Readers who want additional technical
information on the KFM are advised to buy a
copy of the original Oak Ridge National Labora-
tory report on this instrument. The KFM, A
Homemade Yet Accurate and Dependable Fallout
Meter (ORNL-5040, CORRECTED), by Cresson
H. Kearny, Paul R. Barnes, Conrad V. Chester,
and Margaret W. Cortner. Date published: Janu-
ary 1978. Copies are sold by the National Techni-
cal Information Service, U.S. Department of
Commerce, 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield,
Virginia 22161. Since the price continues to
increase, it is best to write first, to learn the
postage-paid cost.

* Civil defense professionals of foreign
countries also have concluded that KFMs have
lifesaving potential. The June 1978 Special Issue
of The Journal of the Institute of Civil Defence
(“The Premier Society of Disaster Studies”,
with headquarters in London) was entirely
devoted to the KFM, and gave international
distribution to the original complete instruc-
tions and cut-out paper patterns. The interest of
Chinese civil defense officials in the KFM and
my other low cost survival inventions led to my
making, with White House approval, two long
trips in China as an official guest. In eight
Chinese cities I acquired survival know-how by
exchanging civil defense information with top
civil defense officials.

• A Major Disadvantage: A KFM
Looks Like a Toy

* This instrument appears too simple to
be trusted to measure deadly radiation, a fright-
ening mystery to most people. Typical moderns
are accustomed to pushing buttons and twisting
dials to get information instantly from instru-
ments they do not understand. Most feel that a
dependable radiation-monitoring instrument
has to be complex. However, especially during
a worsening nuclear crisis many typical Ameri-
cans would build KFMs if they become con-
vinced of the accuracy and dependability of this
homemakeable instrument that they can under-
stand, use intelligently, and repair if necessary.

• Caution: Earlier versions of KFM-making
instructions, written when common sewing
threads were good insulators, recommend

sewing threads for suspending a KFM’s leaves.
Now most sewing threads are anti-static treated,
are poor insulators, and are unsatisfactory for
use in KFMs. Makers of KFMs should use the
instructions in this updated edition, that recom-
mend widely available, excellent insulators for
suspending a KFM’s leaves, and that incorporate
several field-tested design improvements.

• Instructions for Making and Using KFMs

Appendix C gives the latest field-tested
instructions (with patterns) to enable you to
make a KFM and to learn how to use it.

The great need for civil defense instruments
is likely to be fully recognized only during a
worsening nuclear crisis. Therefore, in this
edition the KFM instructions and patterns are
printed on only one side of a sheet, with extra
patterns at the end of the text, and with two
pages at the very end to expedite the rapid
reproduction of the KFM instructions. Timed
printing tests by two newspapers have proved
that, with the help of these two pages of special
instructions, a newspaper can paste up and
photograph all pages of the KFM instructions,
print a 12-page tabloid giving them, and start
distributing the tabloid — all in less than one
hour. Thus, if you have a copy of this book
during an all-too-possible nuclear crisis, you
may be able to give these instructions to a
newspaper and help thousands of your fellow
citizens obtain the information that they need to
make fallout meters for themselves.

• Advice on Building a KFM

The reader is urged to set aside several hours in the
near future for making a KFM and for mastering its
use. During field tests, average American families have
needed about 6 hours to study the instructions given in
Appendix C, to make this simple instrument, and to
learn how to use it. These several hours may not be
available in the midst of a crisis. Higher priority work
would be the building of a high-protection-factor
shelter, the making of a shelter-ventilating pump, and
the storing of adequate water. In a crisis it might not be
possible to obtain some needed materials for a KFM.

It is very difficult to concentrate on unfamiliar
details during a nerve-racking crisis, or to do delicate
work with hands that may become unsteady. The best
time to build and learn to use a KFM is in peacetime,
long before a crisis. Then this long-lasting instrument
should be stored for possible future need.

Chapter 1 1
Light

THE NEED FOR MINIMUM LIGHT

Numerous disasters have proved that many
people can remain calm for several days in total
darkness. But some occupants of a shelter full of
fearful people probably would go to pieces if they
could see nothing and could not get out. It is easy to
imagine the impact of a few hysterical people on the
other occupants of a pitch-dark shelter. Under
wartime conditions, even a faint light that shows only
the shapes of nearby people and things can make the
difference between an endurable situation and a
black ordeal.

Figure 11.1 shows what members of the Utah
family saw in their shelter on the third night of
occupancy. All of the family’s flashlights and other
electric lights had been used until the batteries were
almost exhausted. They had no candles at home and

Fig. 11.1. Night scene in a trench shelter
without light.

failed to bring the cooking oil, glass jar, and cotton
string included in the Evacuation Checklist. These
materials would have enabled them to make an
expedient lamp and to keep a small light burning
continuously for weeks, if necessary.

At 2 AM on the third night, the inky blackness
caused the mother, a stable woman who had never
feared the dark, to experience her first claustro-
phobia. In a controlled but tense voice she suddenly
awoke everyone by stating: “I have to get out of here.
I can’t orient myself.” Fortunately for the shelter-
occupancy experiment, when she reached the entry
trench she overcame her fears and lay down to sleep
on the floor near the entrance.

Conclusion: In a crisis, it is especially bad not to
be able to see at all.

ELECTRIC LIGHTS

Even in communities outside areas of blast, fire,
or fallout, electric lights dependent on the public
power system probably would fail. Electromagnetic
pulse effects produced by the nuclear explosions, plus
the destruction of power stations and transmission
lines, would knock out most public power.

No emergency lights are included in the supplies
stocked in official shelters. The flashlights and
candles that some people would bring to shelters
probably would be insufficient to provide minimum
light for more than a very few days.

A low-amperage light bulb used with a large dry
cell battery or a car battery is an excellent source of
low-level continuous light. One of the small 12-volt
bulbs in the instrument panels of cars with 12-volt
batteries will give enough light for 10 to 15 nights.

without discharging a car battery so much that it
cannot be used to start a car.

Making an efficient battery-powered lighting
system for your shelter is work best done before a
crisis arises. During a crisis you should give higher
priority to many other needs.

Things to remember about using small bulbs
with big batteries:

• Always use a bulb of the same voltage as the
battery.

• Use a small, high-resistance wire, such as bell
wire, with a car battery.

• Connect the battery after the rest of the
improvised light circuit has been completed.

• Use reflective material such as aluminum foil,
mirrors, or white boards to concentrate a weak light
where it is needed.

• If preparations are made before a crisis, small
1 2-volt bulbs (0.1 to 0.25 amps) with sockets and wire
can be bought at a radio parts store. Electric test clips
for connecting thin wire to a car battery can be
purchased at an auto parts store.

CANDLES AND COMMERCIAL LAMPS

Persons going to a shelter should take all their
candles with them, along with plenty of matches in a
waterproof container such as a Mason jar. Fully
occupied shelters can become so humid that matches
not kept in moisture-proof containers cannot be
lighted after a single day.

Lighted candles and other fires should be placed
near the shelter opening through which air is leaving
the shelter, to avoid buildup of slight amounts of
carbon monoxide and other headache-causing gases.
If the shelter is completely closed for a time for any
reason, such as to keep out smoke from a burning
house nearby, all candles and other Fires in the shelter
should be extinguished.

Gasoline and kerosene lamps should not be
taken inside a shelter. They produce gases that can
cause headaches or even death. If gasoline or
kerosene lamps are knocked over, as by blast winds
that would rush into shelters over extensive areas, the
results would be disastrous.

SAFE EXPEDIENT LAMPS FOR SHELTERS

The simple expedient lamps described below are
the results of Oak Ridge National Laboratory
experiments which started with oil lamps of the kinds
used by Eskimos and the ancient Greeks. Our
objective was to develop safe, dependable, long-
lasting shelter lights that can be made quickly, using
only common household materials. Numerous field
tests have proved that average Americans can build
good lamps by following the instructions given below
(Fig. 11.2).

These expedient lamps have the following
advantages:

• They are safe. Even if a burning lamp is knocked
over onto a dry paper, the flame is so small that it will
be extinguished if the lamp fuel being burned is a
cooking oil or fat commonly used in the kitchen, and
if the lamp wick is not much larger than ’/i6 inch in
diameter.

• Since the flame is inside a jar, it is not likely to set
fire to a careless person’s clothing or to be blown out
by a breeze.

• With the smallest practical wick and flame, a
lamp burns only about 1 ounce of edible oil or fat in
eight hours. .

• Even withaflamesmallerthanthatofabirthday
candle, there is enough light for reading. To read
easily by such a small flame, attach aluminum foil to
three sides and the bottom of the lamp, and suspend it
between you and your book, just high enough not to
block your vision. (During the long, anxious days
and nights spent waiting for fallout to decay, shelter
occupants will appreciate having someone read aloud
to them.)

• A lamp with aluminum foil attached is an
excellent trap for mosquitoes and other insects that
can cause problems in an unscreened shelter. They
are attracted to the glittering light and fall into the oil.

• Two of these lamps can be made in less than an
hour, once the materials have been assembled, so
there is no reason to wait until a crisis arises to make
them. Oil exposed to the air deteriorates, so it is best
not to store lamps filled with oil or to keep oil-soaked
wicks for months.

WIRE - STIFFENED- WICK LAMP FLOAT ING WICK LAMP

Chapter 12

Shelter Sanitation and Preventive Medicine

AN OUNCE OF PREVENTION

Should fallout force Americans to stay crowded
into basements and expedient shelters for days or
weeks, they should protect themselves against the
spread of infectious diseases by taking both
accustomed and unaccustomed preventive measures.
Thousands of our jungle infantrymen in World
War II learned to practice many of the health-
preserving techniques described in this chapter. If
modern medical facilities were temporarily unavail-
able, the prevention of diseases would become much
more important to all of us.

The following infection-preventing measures are
simple, practical, and require some self-discipline.
The author has observed their practice and has used
them while exploring and soldiering in a number of
jungle, desert, and mountain regions. I also have used
these measures while field-testing nuclear war
survival skills in several states.

Basic first aid also would be of increased
importance during a major confrontation or war.
Good first aid booklets and instructions are available
in practically all communities, so most first aid
information will not be repeated here.

DISPOSAL OF HUMAN WASTES

To preserve health and morale in a shelter
without a toilet or special chemicals for treatment of
excrement and urine, human wastes should be
removed before they produce much gas. A garbage
can with a lid ora bucket covered with plastic will not
hold the pressurized gas produced by rotting
excrement. The following expedient means of
disposal are listed in increasing order of effectiveness.

• Use a 5-gallon paint can, a bucket, or a large
waterproof wastebasket to collect both urine and
excrement. U'se and keep it near the air-exhaust end
of the shelter. Keep it tightly covered when not in use;
a piece of plastic tied over the top keeps out insects
and reduces odors. When such waste containers are
full or begin to stink badly while covered, put them
outside the shelter — still covered to keep out flies.

For some people, especially the aged, bringing a
toilet seat from home would be justified. Padding on
the edge of the bucket also helps those who have to sit
down. An improvised seat of plywood or board
serves well.

If only one container is available and is almost
filled, periodically dump the wastes outside— unless
fallout is still being deposited. Before an anticipated
attack, people who plan to stay in a shelter should dig
a waste-disposal pit if they do not have sufficient
waste containers for weeks of shelter occupancy. The
pit should be located about 3 feet from the shelter in
the down-wind direction. This usually will be the air
exhaust end of an earth-covered shelter. The pit
should be surrounded by a ring of mounded, packed
earth about 6 inches high, to keep surface water from
heavy rains from running into it.

Quickly putting or dumping wastes outside is
not hazardous once fallout is no longer being
deposited. For example, assume the shelter is in an
area of heavy fallout and the dose rate outside is
400 R/ hr —enough to give a potentially fatal dose in
about an hour to a person exposed in the open. If a
person needs to be exposed for only 10 seconds to
dump a bucket, in this 1 / 360th of an hour he will
receive a dose of only about 1 R. Under war condi-
tions, an additional 1-Rdose is of little concern. If the

shelter design does not permit an occupant todispose
of wastes without running outside, he can tie cloth or
plastic over his shoes before going out, and remove
these coverings in the entry before going back inside
the shelter room. This precaution will eliminate the
chance of tracking “hot” fallout particles into the
shelter, and the small chance of someone getting a
tiny beta burn in this way.

• Have all occupants only urinate in the bucket,
and defecate into a piece of plastic. Urine contains
few harmful organisms and can be safely dumped
outside.

Two thicknesses of the thin plastic used to cover
freshly drycleaned clothes will serve to hold bowel
movements of several persons. Gather the plastic
around the excrement to form a bag-like container.
Tie the plastic closed near its upper edges w-ith a string
or narrow strip of cloth. Do not tie it so tightly as to
be gas-tight. Each, day’s collection should be gently
tossed outside. As the excrement rots, the gas will
leak out of the tied end of the plastic covering. Flies
will be attracted in swarms, but they will not be able
to get into the plastic to contaminate their feet or to
lay eggs. And because rotting excrement is so
attractive to flies, shelter occupants will be bothered
less by these dangerous pests.

If you have prudently kept a can of modern
fly bait in your survival supplies, a little
sprinkled on top of the plastic covering can kill
literally thousands of flies. The most effective
fly baits, such as Die Fly and Improved Golden
Malrin, are sold in farm supply stores.

• Use a hose-vented, 5-gallon can or bucket lined
with a heavy plastic bag; cover tightly with plastic
when not in use. Figure 12.1 shows this type of
expedient toilet.

The vent-hose runs through a hole near the top
of the paint can shown and is taped to seal it to the
can. Such a hole can be quite easily cut w-ith a chisel or
a sharpened screwdriver. The hose is long enough to
extend outside the shelter. Its outer end should be
secured about 6 inches above ground level, to prevent
water from running into it during a heavy rain. When
a toilet-can is tightly covered, foul gases can escape
through the hose to the outdoors.

With its opening tied shut, a large plastic trash
bag containing as much as 30 pounds of wastes can be
lifted out of a toilet-can and disposed of outside the
shelter.

The 6-member Utah family described in preced-
ing chapters used a home-like expedient toilet during
their 77-hour shelter stay. Figure 12.2 pictures the
toilet seat they took with them, placed on a hose-

Fig. 12.1. A 5-gallon paint can used for a hose-
vented toilet-can, with a plastic trash bag for its
removable liner.

vented container in a hole in the ground. The toilet
was at one end of the shelter. A person sitting on this
toilet could put his feet in the adjacent “stand-up
hole" and be more comfortable.

The blanket shown hanging on the left in
Fig. 12.2 could be drawn in front of the toilet for
privacy. Behind the girl’s head was the emergency
crawlway-ventilation trench. When the toilet was
being used, the shelter-ventilating K.AP pumped air
under the blanket-curtain and out the ventilation
trench, resulting in very little odor in the rest of the
shelter.

Vomiting is certain to cause both morale and
health problems, especially for unprepared shelter
occupants fearing this first dramatic symptom of
radiation sickness. Nervousness, combined with the
effects of unaccustomed food and water, will cause
even some healthy persons to vomit. In a crowded
shelter, the sight and smell of vomit will make others
throw up. Plastic bags, well distributed throughout a
shelter, are the best means to catch vomit and keep it

Fig. 1 2.2. The hose-vented expedient toilet used
by the Utah family for over 3 days. (The unconnected
telephone was brought along as a joke.)

off the floor. Buckets, pots, or a newspaper folded
into a cone also will serve.

DISPOSAL OF DEAD BODIES

In large shelters which are occupied for many
days, someone may die even when no occupants have
been injured by blast, fire, or radiation. The sight or
the sickly-sweet stink of a decaying human body is
greatly disturbing. Some civil defense workers have
theorized that the best way to take care of a corpse in
a shelter until the fallout dose-rate outdoors is low
enough to allow burial is to seal it in a large plastic
bag. A simple test with a dead dog proved this idea
impractical: gas pressure caused the bag to burst. One
solution is to put the corpse outside as soon as the
odor is evident. First, if possible, place it in a bag
made of large plastic trash bags taped together and
perforated with a few pinholes.

CLEAN WATER AND FOOD

Disinfecting water by boiling (preferably for at
least 10 minutes) or by treating it with chlorine or
iodine has been described in Chapter 8, Water.

When water is first stored, it should be dis-
infected by the addition of 1 scant teaspoon of
ordinary household bleach for each 10 gallons.

To avoid contaminating water when removing
small quantities from a container such as a
waterproof bag, the simplest way is First to pour some
into a pot or other medium-sized container, from
which small amounts can be poured into individual
cups. Dipping water with a cup runs more risk of
contamination. The cleanest way to take small
quantities of water out of a container is to siphon it
with a flexible tube, as described in Chapter 8, Water.

Sanitary storage of food in expedient shelters is
often difficult. Although almost any paper or plastic
covering will keep fallout particles from food, shelter
dampness can cause paper containers to break. Ants,
roaches, and weevils can cut through paper or plastic
coverings to reach food inside. Placing paper
containers of food in plastic bags and suspending the
bags from the ceiling of the shelter entryway gives
good protection against bugs, and quite good protec-
tion against moisture for a few weeks. (Do not
obstruct the air flow through an entryway if heat is a
problem.) A small amount of insect repellent or
grease smeared on the suspending string or wire will
stop all crawlers. Metal and strong plastic containers
with tight lids protect food best.

The hygienic preparation and serving of food in
a shelter, especially in hot weather, require that all
cooked food be eaten promptly. It is best to eat within
half-an-hour after cooking. Canned foods should be
consumed shortly after opening. The cleaning and
disinfecting of utensils, bowls, etc., should be done
promptly, to prevent bacteria from multiplying and
to lessen the chances of ants and other insects being
attracted into the shelter. Sugar should be mixed with
cereals in the cooking pot, to avoid spilling.

In Oak Ridge National Laboratory shelter tests,
only a few infants and toddlers have been included
among the occupants. Feeding infants and small
children over a piece of plastic would be one good
way to keep the inevitable spillage from complicating
shelter life.

To avoid using dishes, most foods can be served
on squares of plastic. Spoons and such plastic

“dishes" can be licked clean after eating, then
disinfected by boiling or by dipping them into
chlorine bleach solution containing one tablespoon
ol Clorox-type bleach to a quart of water.

A shelter occupant w ithout a spoon can eat very
thick grain mush in a sanitary manner by placing it on
a piece ol plastic held in his hand, forming it into a
ball, and taking bites. Although Chinese peasants
olten eat wet-rice balls held in their bare hands,
experiments have indicated not unexpectedly
that Americans do not like to eat this way.

Cooking without oil or fat makes disinfecting
utensils much easier when water and fuel are being
conserved. Cereals and sugar are easy to wash off
with a little water, without soap.

CONTROL OF INSECTS

Insect sprays used in high-protection-factor
shelters are likely to cause more problems than they
eliminate. Poisonous insecticides should be used w ith
caution. Insect repellents on the skin and clothingare
generally helpful, but not likely to be in sufficient
supply to last for weeks or months. Some insect
problems and simple means of controlling them are
described below.

Mosquitoes would multiply rapidly after an attack,
because normal control measures would not be in
effect. Using insect screen or mosquito netting to cover
the ventilation openings of a shelter is the best way to
keep out mosquitoes, flies, and all larger insects. The
lack of insect screening — when it would be too
late to obtain any — could result in more harrass-
ment. discomfort and possible disease than
most people accustomed to modern living are
likely to imagine. However, if the shelter has no air
pump, it is impractical to use screens that obstruct the
free movement of vital air except in cold weather.

The fly population would explode after a nuclear
attack. Radiation doses several times larger than doses
that would kill people do not sterilize insects. In
extensive rural areas where almost all people could
have adequate shelter to be safe from fallout, most
domestic animals and wild creatures would be killed.
Trillions of flies would breed in the dead bodies.

If you have prudently kept a can of modern
fly bait in your survival supplies, a little
sprinkled on top of the plastic covering can kill
literally thousands of flies.

Shelter occupants should make every effort to
prevent flies from reaching disease-spreading human
wastes.

Ants, especially in the warmer parts of the country,
could drive people out of expedient shelters. The best
prevention is to try to find a shelter-building site that is

not near an ant nest. If shelter occupants are careful in
storing food and eating, ants arc less likely to become a
problem.

l icks and chiggers are usually found on grass
and low bushes. To avoid carrying these pests into the
shelter, do not bring grass or dead leaves into your
shelter for bedding except in freezing weather. Cut
leafy branches high above the ground: few pests live
in tall vegetation.

PERSONAL POSSESSIONS

Toothbrushes are not boiled or otherwise dis-
infected after being used, because we all develop con-
siderable resistance to our own infective organisms.
For the same reason, each individual should have his
own personal drinking cup. bowl, and spoon. They
should be cleaned as well as possible and kept covered
w hen not in use.

PREVENTION OF SKIN DISEASES

In crowded shelters, especially during hot
weather, skin diseases are likely to be a more serious
problem than is generally recognized. The impor-
tance of learning how to prevent skin diseases was
made apparent by one of the very few shelter-
occupancy tests to be conducted in the summer
without- air conditioning. This was a Navy test in
which 99 men lived for 12 days in an underground
shelter cooled only with outdoor summer air. 1 The
incidence of skin complaints was high, even though
medical treatment was available on a daily basis. The
total number of reports to sick call was 560: 34 of
these 99 healthy young men contracted heat rash and
23 had other skin complaints such as fungus
infections. However, these sailors lived in an
inadequately ventilated shelter and did not cleanse
their sweaty skins or use the other methods listed
below for preventing skin troubles.

Even in shelters that are skillfully ventilated with
adequate outdoor air. skin diseases will be a serious
problem especially in hot weather unless special
hygiene measures are followed. Humid heat and heat
rash increase susceptibility to skin diseases. Most of
the following measures for preventing skin diseases
have been practiced by jungle natives for thousands
of years.

• Wash off sweat and dead skin. (When it is hot
and humid, dead skin is continuously rubbing and
flaking off and starting to decay.) Many jungle
natives rinse their bodies several times a day. Bathing
several times a day with soap is harmful in humid
heat; the rapid loss of normal skin oils is one of the
causes of skin diseases.. Your skin can be kept fairly

clean by rinsing off each day with just a cup of water,
while rubbing gently with a very small cloth. A 6-inch
square of bedsheet cloth serves well. So that you can
dispose of the dirty water afterwards, wash yourself
while standing on a piece of plastic with its edges held
up slightly. (Place sticks or narrow boards under the
edges.) Use about two-thirds of the precious water for
the first rinse, starting from the face down and gently
rubbing neck, armpits, stomach, groin, buttocks, and
feet with a washcloth. Then use the remaining water
to rinse off again, using bare fingers. If boiling water
is available, sterilize washcloths every day by boiling
them for a few minutes.

• Sleep as cool and bare as practical, to dry the
maximum skin area.

• If practical, sit and sleep only where other
members of your family do and avoid use of bedding
by more than one family.

• Avoid infection from toilet seats by disinfecting
with a strong chlorine solution and then rinsing, by
covering with paper, or by not sitting down.

• Wash or disinfect clothing as often as practical,
especially underwear and socks. Disinfecting cloth-
ing, not laundering it, is the most important health
objective under difficult shelter conditions. Dipping
clothing into boiling water disinfects it. Unless plenty
of water is available for rinsing, do not disinfect
clothing by putting it in a chlorine bleach solution.

• Wear shoes or sandals when walking about, to
prevent fungus infections of the feet.

RESPIRATORY DISEASES

The spread of respiratory and other diseases
transmitted by coughing and sneezing would be
difficult to control in long-occupied shelters.
Adequate ventilation would help in disease preven-
tion. In small shelters, it would be better if persons
who are sneezing or coughing could stay near the
opening being used for air exhaust. In large shelters
with many occupants, the risk of one or more of them
having a disease that is easily spread obviously will be
higher than in a small shelter.

Chapter 13

Surviving Without Doctors

A TEMPORARY RETURN TO SELF-HELP

Most doctors, hospital facilities, and medical
supplies are located in cities. An all-out attack would
destroy most of these modern blessings. Even if
medical assistance were nearby, only a few of the
survivors confined to shelters in areas of heavy fallout
would be able to get needed medicines or the help of a
doctor. For periods ranging from days to months,
most unprepared survivors would be forced to live
under medical cond itions almost as primitive as those
experienced by the majority of mankind for all but
the past few decades of human history.

BENIGN NEGLECT

Life without modern medical help would be less
painful and hazardous for those survivors who have
some practical knowledge of what should be
done — or not done — under primitive, unsanitary
conditions. Information about first aid and hygienic
precautions can be obtained from widely available
Red Cross and civil defense booklets and courses.
This knowledge, with a stock of basic first aid
supplies, would reduce suffering and prevent many
dangerous illnesses. However, first aid instructions
do not include advice about what to do for serious
injuries and sicknesses if no doctors or effective
medicines are available.

Where There Is No Doctor,* 2 the excellent self-
help handbook recommended by Volunteers in
Technical Assistance, gives much information that
goes far beyond the scope of first aid. But even this
handbook repeatedly recommends getting profes-
sional medical help whenever possible for serious
injuries and illnesses.

Fortunately, the human body has remarkable
capabilities for healing itself, especially if the injured

or sick person and his companions practice intelligent
“benign neglect.” Such purposeful non-interference
with the body’s recuperative processes was called
“masterful inactivity” by Colonel C. Blanchard
Henry, M.D., a widely recognized authority on mass
casualty evacuation and treatment. Colonel Henry
was one of the first medical officers to visit Hiroshima
and Nagasaki after their destruction and was an
experienced analyzer of civil defense preparations in
several countries.

The following is a brief summary of
Colonel Henry’s medical advice for nuclear war
survivors living under primitive conditions and
unable to get- the help of a doctor or effective
medicines.” (Additional advice, enclosed in brackets,
is from a medical publication. 54 )

• Wounds: Apply only pressure dressings to stop
bleeding — unless an artery has been cut, as by a blast-
hurled piece of glass. If blood is spurting from a
wound, apply both a pressure dressing and a
windlass-type tourniquet. Loosen the tourniquet
pressure about every 1 5 minutes, to allow enough
blood to reach the flesh beyond the tourniquet and
keep it alive. There is a fair chance that clotting under
the pressure dressing will stop blood loss before it
becomes fatal.

• Infected wounds: Do not change dressings
frequently. The formation of white pus shows that
white corpuscles are mobilizing to combat the
infection. In World War 1, wounded soldiers in
hospitals suffered agonies having their wounds
cleaned and dressed frequently; many died as a result
of such harmful care. In contrast, before antibiotics
became available late in World War II, casts and
dressings on infected wounds sometimes were not
changed for weeks. (The author saw this treatment in
China and India and smelled the stench resulting

from such "benign neglect” of American soldiers’
wounds neglect that helped save limbs and lives.)

• Pieces of glass deeply embedded in flesh: Do not
probe with tweezers ora knife in an attempt to extract
them. Most glass will come out when the wounds
discharge pus.

• Burns: Do not apply grease, oil or any other
medicine to the burned area. Cover the area securely
with a clean, dry dressing or folded cloth. Do not
change the dressing frequently. [For most burns, the
bandage need not be removed until the tenth to
fourteenth day. Give plenty of slightly salted water:
about 1 teaspoon (4.5 gm) of salt per quart (or liter),
preferably chilled, in amounts of I to 3 liters
daily. ']

• Broken bones: Apply simple splints to keep the
bones from moving. Do not worn about deformities:
most can be corrected later by a doctor. Do not
attempt traction setting of broken bones.

• Shock: Keep the victim warm. Place blankets or
other insulation material under him. Do not cover
him w ith so mans blankets that he sweats and suffers
harmful fluid losses. Give him plenty of slightly salted
water [about a teaspoon of salt in a liter (or quart)
of water],

• Heat prostration: Gi\e adequate fluids, includ-
ing slightly salty water.

• Simple childbirth: Keep hands off. Wait until the
mother has given birth. Do not tie and cut the cord
unless a potent disinfectant is available. Instead, use
the primitive practice of w rapping the cord and the
placenta around the infant until they dry. Avoid the
risk of infecting the mother by removing the rest of
the afterbirth: urge the mother to work to expel it.

• Toothache: Do not attempt to pull an aching
tooth. Decaying teeth willabscess and fall out. This is
a painful but seldom fatal process — one which was
endured b\ most of our remote ancestors who
reached maturity.

VETERINARIAN ANTIBIOTICS

People who for decades have used antibiotics to
combat their infections have not produced normal
quantities of antibodies, and have subnormal
resistance to many infections. People who have not
been dependent on antibiotics have these antibodies.
In the aftermath of a massive nuclear attack, most
sur\i\ing Americans would be in rural areas; many

would need antibiotics. A large part of their need
could be met by the supplies of veterinarian
antibiotics kept on livestock and chicken farms, at
feed mills, and in small towns. Many animals are
given more antibiotics in their short lives than most
Americans receive in theirs. Hogs, for example, are
given antibiotics and or other disease-controlling
medicines in their feed each day. In many farming
areas, veterinary antibiotics and other medicines are
in larger supply than are those for people. Realistic
preparations to survive an all-out attack should
include utilizing these supplies.

RADIATION SICKNESS

For the vast majority of Americans who would
receive radiation doses from a massive attack, the help

of doctors , antibiotics , blood transfusions , etc., would

not be of life-or-death importance. Very few of those
receiving acute doses (received within 24 hours) of less
than 100 R would become sick, even briefly. All of
those exposed to acute doses between 100 R and 200 R
should recover from radiation effects. 6 However,
under post-attack conditions of multiple stresses
and privations, some who receive acute radiation
doses of 100 R to 200 R may die of infectious dis-
eases because of their reduced resistance. If total
doses this size or even several times larger are received
over a period of a few months in small doses of around
6 R per day, no incapacitating symptoms should result.
The human body usually can repairalmost all radiation
damage if the daily doses are not too large.

The majority of those with acute doses ofless than
about 350 R will recover without medical treatment.
Almost all of those receiving acute doses of over 600 R
would die within a few weeks, even if they were to
receive treatment in a typical hospital during
peacetime. If all doctors and the equipment and drugs
needed for heroic treatments magically were to survive
an attack and persons suffering from radiation
sickness could reach them — relatively few additional
lives could be saved.

The most effective way to reduce losses of health
and life from radiation sickness is to prevent
excessive exposure to radiation. Adequate shelter
and essential life-support items are the best means of
saving lives in a nuclear war. The following informa-
tion on radiation sickness is given to help the reader
understand the importance of building a good shelter
and to help him distinguish between symptoms of
common illnesses and first symptoms of radiation
sickness.

The first symptoms of radiation sickness are
nausea, vomiting, headache, dizziness, and a general

feeling of illness.” These symptoms begin several
hours after exposure to acute doses of 100 R to 200 R,
and within 30 minutes or less after receiving a fatal
dose. A source of probable confusion is the fact that
one or more of these symptoms is experienced by
many people when they are first exposed to great
danger, as in an air raid shelterduringa conventional
bombardment.

The occupants of a shelter might worry unneces-
sarily for weeks, mistaking their early emotional
reactions for the initial phase of radiation sickness.
This would be particularly true if they had no
dependable instrument for measuring radiation, or
if none of them knew how to use such an
instrument.

The initial symptoms end within a day or two.
Then follows the latent phase of radiation sickness,
during which the patient experiences few, if any,
symptoms. If the dose received was in the non-fatal
range, the latent ' phase may last as long as
2 weeks.

In the final phase, the victim of serious or fatal
radiation sickness will have reduced resistance to
infections and is likely to suffer diarrhea, lossof hair,
and small hemorrhages of the skin, mouth, and or
intestinal tract. Diarrhea from common causes may
be confused with the onset of radiation sickness, but
hemorrhages and loss of much hair are clear indica-
tions of having received serious, but not necessarily
fatal, radiation exposure. The final phase usually
lasts for one to two months. Any available antibiotics
should be reserved for this critical phase of
the illness.

Doses of 1000 R to 5000 R result in bloody
diarrhea, fever, and blood circulation abnormalities,
with the initial symptoms beginning within less than
30 minutes after exposure and the final phase
occurring less than a day thereafter. Death results
within 2 to 14 days. The victim of a dose of over
5000 R dies a hard death within 48 hours, due to
radiation damage to the central nervous system.

Recovery from most cases of radiation sickness
will be more likely for patients who receive a well
balanced diet, rest, freedom from stress, and clean
surroundings. But most patients, even without these
advantages, will survive — as proved by the survival of
thousands of Hiroshima and Nagasaki citizens who
suffered serious radiation sickness. Nursing radiation
victims is not hazardous. Even persons dying from a
dose of 5000 R are not sources ofdangerous radiation

by wartime standards, and radiation sickness is not
contagious.

LIFETIME RISKS FROM RADIATION

The large radiation doses that many survivors of a
nuclear attack would receive would result in serious
long-term risks of death from cancer, but the lifetime
risks from even large wartime radiation doses
are not as bad as many people believe. Signifi-
cantly, no official U.S. estimates have been
made available to the public regarding excess
cancer deaths to be expected if America is
subjected to a nuclear attack. However, reliable
statistics are available on the numbers of addi-
tional fatal cancers suffered by persons who
received large whole-body radiation doses at
Hiroshima and in other disasters, and who lived
for months to decades before dying. Dr. John N.
Auxier — who for years was a leading health
physicist at Oak Ridge National Laboratory,
was one of the American scientists working in
Japan with Japanese scientists studying the
Hiroshima and Nagasaki survivors, and cur-
rently is working on radiation problems with
International Technology Corporation — in 1986
summarized for me the risk of excess fatal
cancers from large whole-body radiation doses:
“If 1,000 people each receive a whole-body radia-
tion dose of 100 rems [or 100 rads, or 100 R],
about 10 additional fatal cancers will result.”
These 10 fatal cancers will be in addition to
about 150 fatal cancers that normally will de-
velop among these 1,000 people during their
lifetimes. This risk is proportional to large
doses: thus, if 1,000 people each receive a dose of
200 rems, about 20 additional lethal cancer
cases would be expected.

“Rem” is an abbreviation for “roentgen equivalent
(in) man.’ 1 '’ The rem takes into account the biological
effects of different kinds of radiation. For external
gamma-ray radiation from fallout, the numerical value
of an exposure or dose given in roentgens is approxi-
mately the same as the numerical value given in rems or
in rads. The rad is the unit of radiation energy
absorption in any material and applies to all
kinds of nuclear radiations. Therefore, for simpli-
city’s sake, this book gives both instrument readings
(exposures) and doses in roentgens (R).

The reader desiring good information on the long-
term and worldwide effects of radiation is referred to
two authoritative reports of the National Academy of
Sciences, Washington, D.C. 20006: The Effects on
Populations of Exposures to Low Levels of Ionizing
Radiation (The BEIR Report made by the NAS
Committee on the Biological Effects of Ionizing

Radiation) (November 1972); and Long-Term World-
wide T))ects o) Itiulnple Nuclear-Weapons T>e)onaUons

()975).

From the standpoint of basic survival know-how,
these and other complicated scientific studies show that
to minimize lifetime risks from radiation, after a
nuclear attack people should:

• Provide the best protection against radiation for
pregnant women and young children, since fetuses and
the very young are the most likely to be hurt by
radiation.

• Realize that, with the exception of lung
cancer, older people are no more susceptible to
radiation injury than are those in the prime of
life. Also, a 65-year-old probably will not live
long enough to die of a cancer that takes 20
years or more to develop. Many older people, if
they know realistic risk estimates, will choose
to do essential outdoor work and take non-
incapacitating radiation doses in order to spare
younger members of their families the risk of
getting cancer decades later.

PREVENTION OF THYROID DAMAGE
FROM RADIOACTIVE IODINES

There is no medicine that will effectively prevent
nuclear radiations from damaging the human body
cells that they strike. However, a salt of the elements
potassium and iodine, taken orally even in very small
quantities ' _■ hour to 1 day before radioactive iodines
are swallowed or inhaled, prevents about 99°/c of the
damage to the thyroid gland that otherwise would
result. The thyroid gland readily absorbs both non-
radioacti\e and radioactive iodine, and normally it
retains much of this element in either or both forms.
When ordinary, non-radioactive iodine is made
available in the blood for absorption by the thyroid
gland before any radioactive iodine is made available,
the gland will absorb and retain so much that it
becomes saturated with non-radioactive iodine.
When saturated, the thyroid can absorb only about
l r f as much additional iodine, including radioactive
forms that later may become available in the blood;
then it is said to be blocked. (Excess iodine in the
blood is rapidly eliminated by the action of
the kidneys.)

An excess of ordinary iodine retained in the
thyroid gland is harmless, but quite small amounts of
radioactive iodine retained in the thyroid eventually
will give such a large radiation dose to thyroid cells
that abnormalities are likely to result. These would
include loss of thyroid function, nodules in the

thyroid, or thyroid cancer. Sixty-four Marshall
'islanders on 'Rongelap At oil were accidentally
exposed to radioactive fallout produced by a )arge
H-bomb test explosion on Bikini Atoll, about
100 miles away. Twenty-two of them developed
thyroid abnormalities beginning nine years later/’ In
the two days before they were taken out of the fallout
area, these completely uninformed natives, living
essentially outdoors, had received estimated whole-
body gamma-ray doses of about 175 R from the
fallout all around them. They absorbed most of the
radioactive iodine retained by their thyroid glands as
a result of eating and drinking fallout-contaminated
food and water during their two days of exposure.

( Because of unusual environmental conditions at the
time of fallout deposition, some of the retained
radioactive iodine may have come from the air
they breathed.)

An extremely small and inexpensive daily dose
of the preferred non-radioactive potassium salt,
potassium iodide (Kl). if taken 1 : hour to I day before
exposure to radioactive iodine, will reduce later
absorption of radioactive iodine by the thyroid to
only about 1% of what the absorption would be
without this preventive measure. Extensive experi-
mentation and study have led to the Federal Drug
Administration's approval of 130-milligram (130-
mg) tablets for this preventive (prophylactic) use
only. ' A 130-mg dose provides the same daily
amount of iodine as does each tablet that English
authorities for years have placed in the hands of the
police near nuclear power plants, for distribution to

the 5Ui i oumiiug population in the very unlikely event

of a major nuclear accident. It is quite likely that a
similar-sized dose is in the Russian “individual,
standard first-aid packet.” According to a compre-
hensive Soviet 1969 civil defense handbook." this
first-aid packet contains “anti-radiation tablets
and anti-vomiting tablets (potassium iodide and
etaperain).”

• Prophylactic use of potassium iodide
in peacetime nuclear accidents.

When the Three Mile Island nuclear reactor
accident was worsening and it appeared that the
reactor’s containment structure might rupture
and release dangerous amounts of radioactive
iodines and other radioactive material into the
atmosphere, the Government rushed prepara-
tion of small bottles of a saturated solution of
potassium iodide. The reactor's containment
structure did not rupture. The 237,013 bottles of
saturated KI solution that were delivered to
Harrisburg, Pennsylvania— mostly too late to

have been effective if the Three Mile Island
accident had become an uncontained meltdown
— were stored in secret in a warehouse, and were
never used.

Since this famous 1979 accident, that injured
no one, the Governors of the 50 states have been
given the responsibility for protecting Ameri-
cans against radioiodines by providing prophy-
lactic potassium iodide. By May of 1986, only in
Tennessee have Americans, other than some
specialists, been given potassium iodide tablets;
around one nuclear reactor some 7,500 residents
have been given the officially approved KI
tablets, to assure their having this protection if
a nuclear accident occurs.

In April of 1982 the Bureau of Radiological
Health and Bureau of Drugs, Food and Drug
Administration, Department of Health and
Human Services released “FINAL RECOMMEN-
DATIONS, Potassium Iodide As A Thyroid-
Blocking Agent In A Radiation Emergency:
Recommendations On Use”. These lengthy rec-
ommendations are summarized in the FDA’s
“mandated patient product insert”. (See a com-
plete copy in the following section.) This insert
is packed with every bottle of non-prescription
KI tablets sold. However, the lengthy FDA
recommendations contain many facts not men-
tioned in this required insert, including the
following: “Based on the FDA adverse reaction
reports and an estimated 48 x 10 6 [48 million]
300-mg doses of potassium iodide administered
each year [in the United States], the NCRP
[National Council on Radiation Protection and
Measurements] estimated an adverse reaction
rate of from 1 in a million to 1 in 10 million
doses.” (Note that this extremely low adverse
reaction rate is for doses over twice as large as
the 130-mg prophylactic dose.)

FDA PATIENT INFORMATION USE OF
130-MG SCORED TABLETS OF POTASSIUM
IODIDE FOR THYROID BLOCKING

(Potassium Iodide Tablets, U.S.P.)

(Pronounced poe-TASS-e-um EYE-oh-dyed)
(Abbreviated KI)

TAKE POTASSIUM IODIDE ONLY WHEN
PUBLIC HEALTH OFFICIALS TELL YOU. IN
A RADIATION EMERGENCY, RADIOACTIVE
IODINE COULD BE RELEASED INTO THE
AIR. POTASSIUM IODIDE (A FORM OF IO-
DINE) CAN HELP PROTECT YOU.

IF YOU ARE TOLD TO TAKE THIS MEDI-
CINE, TAKE IT ONE TIME EVERY 24 HOURS.
DO NOT TAKE IT MORE OFTEN. MORE WILL

NOT HELP YOU AND MAY INCREASE THE
RISK OF SIDE EFFECTS. DO NOT TAKE
THIS DRUG IF YOU KNOW YOU ARE ALLER-
GIC TO IODINE (SEE SIDE EFFECTS BELOW).

INDICATIONS

THYROID BLOCKING IN A RADIATION EMERGENCY
ONLY

DIRECTIONS FOR USE

Use only as directed by State or local public health
authorities in the event of a radiation emergency.

DOSE

ADULTS AND CHILDREN ONE YEAR OF AGE OR
OLDER: One (1) tablet once a day. Crush for small
children.

BABIES UNDER ONE YEAR OF AGE: One-half (%)
tablet once a day. Crush first.

DOSAGE: Take for 10 days unless directed otherwise by
State or local public health authorities.

Store at controlled room temperature between 15° and
30°C (59° to 86°F). Keep bottle tightly closed and protect
from light.

WARNING

POTASSIUM IODIDE SHOULD NOT BE USED BY
PEOPLE ALLERGIC TO IODIDE. Keep out of the reach
of children.. In case of overdose or allergic reaction,
contact a physician or public health authority.

DESCRIPTION

Each iOSAT™ Tablet contains 130 mg. of potassium
iodide.

HOW POTASSIUM IODIDE WORKS

Certain forms of iodine help your thyroid gland work
right. Most people get the iodine they need from foods
like iodized salt or fish. The thyroid can “store” or hold
only a certain amount of iodine.

In a radiation emergency, radioactive iodine may be
released in the air. This material may be breathed or
swallowed. It may enter the thyroid gland and damage it.
The damage would probably not show itself for years.
Children are most likely to have thyroid damage.

If you take potassium iodide, it will fill up your thyroid
gland. This reduces the chance that harmful radioactive
iodine will enter the thyroid gland.

WHO SHOULD NOT TAKE POTASSIUM IODIDE

The only people who should not take potassium iodide
are people who know they are allergic to iodide. You may
take potassium iodide even if you are taking medicines
for a thyroid problem (for example, a thyroid hormone or
antithyroid drug). Pregnant and nursing women and
babies and children may also take this drug.

HOW AND WHEN TO TAKE POTASSIUM IODIDE

Potassium iodide should be taken as soon as possible
after public health officials tell you. You should take one
dose every 24 hours. More will not help you because the
thyroid can "hold” only limited amounts of iodine. Larger
doses will increase the risk of side effects. You will proba-
bly be told not to take the drug for more than 10 days.

SIDE EFFECTS

Usually, side effects of potassium iodide happen when
people take higher doses for a long time. You should be
careful not to take more than the recommended dose or
take it for longer than you are told. Side effects are
unlikely because of the low dose and the short time you
will be taking the drug.

Possible side effects include skin rashes, swelling of the
salivary glands, and "iodism” (metallic taste, burning
mouth and throat, sore teeth and gums, symptoms of a
head cold, and sometimes stomach upset and diarrhea).

A few people have an allergic reaction with more serious
symptoms. These could be fever and joint pains, or
swelling of parts of the face and body and at times
severe shortness of breath requiring immediate medical
attention.

Taking iodide may rarely cause overactivity of the thyroid
gland, underactivity of the thyroid gland, or enlargement
of the thyroid gland (goiter).

WHAT TO DO IF SIDE EFFECTS OCCUR

If the side effects are severe or if you have an allergic
reaction, stop taking potassium iodide. Then, if possible,
call a doctor or public health authority for instructions.

HOW SUPPLIED

Tablets (Potassium Iodide Tablets, U.S.P.): bot-
tles of [number of tablets in a bottle] tablets
( ). Each white, round,

scored tablet contains 130 mg. potassium iodide.

Note that this official FDA required insert
given above prudently stresses the name, the
pronunciation, and the chemical formula (KI) of
these Government-approved 130-mg potassium
iodide tablets. Perhaps this emphasized infor-
mation will keep some alarmed Americans
(misinformed in a future crisis by the media
that typically stated during the Chernobyl
nuclear accident that “iodine tablets” were being
given to people endangered by radioactive iodine
from the burning reactor) from getting and
taking iodine tablets, widely sold for water
purification, or tincture of iodine.

Strangely, neither in official information
available to the general public on the prophy-
lactic use of KI nor in the above-mentioned FDA
“Final Recommendations” is any mention made
of the much greater need for KI in a nuclear
war — even for Americans during an overseas
nuclear war in which the United States would
not be a belligerent.

Also note that this official insert contains
no instructions for giving a crushed KI tablet to

infants and small children. Nor is there any
mention of the fact that the KI under the tablet’s
coating is a more painful-tasting drug than any
that most people ever have taken. This omitted
information is given in the next to last section of
this chapter.

• Protection against radioactive iodine
in fallout from a nuclear war fought outside
the United States.

Most strategists believe that a nuclear war fought
by nations other than the United States is a more likely
catastrophe than a nuclear attack on America. Several
of the Soviet and Chinese nuclear test explosions have
resulted in very light fallout deposition and some
contamination of milk by radioactive iodine in many of
the 50 states. However, serious contamination of milk,
fruits, and vegetables could result if war fallout from
many overseas nuclear explosions were carried
to an America at peace. These potential dangers
and effective countermeasures are included in
Chapter 18, Trans-Pacific Fallout.

If a nuclear war were to be fought in northern
parts of Asia, or in Europe, or in the Middle East, a
very small fraction of the fallout would come to earth
on parts or all of the United States. 40 This fallout would
not result in an overwhelming catastrophe to Ameri-
cans, although the long-term health hazards would be
serious by peacetime standards and the economic losses
would be great. 40 The dangers from radioactive iodine
in milk produced by cows that ate fallout-contaminated
feeds or drank fallout-contaminated water would be
minimized if Americans did not consume dairy products
for several weeks after the arrival of war fallout. Safe
milk and other baby foods would be the only essential
foods that soon would be in very short supply. The
parents of babies and young children who had stored
potassium iodide would be especially thankful they had
made this very inexpensive preparation, that can give
99%-effective protection to the thyroid. All members of
families with a supply of potassium iodide could safely
eat a normal diet long before those without it could do
so.

The most dangerous type of radioactive iodine
decays rapidly. At the end of each 8-day period it gives
off only half as much radiation as at the start of that
period. So at the end of 80 days it emits only about
1 / 1000 as much radiation per hour as at the beginning
of these 80 days. Because of this rapid decay, a 100-day
supply of potassium iodide should be sufficient if a
nuclear war, either overseas or within the United
States, were to last no more than a week or two.

The probability of most Americans being supplied
with prophylactic potassium iodide during a major
nuclear disaster appears low. U nder present regulations
the decision concerning whether to stockpile and
dispense potassium iodide tablets rests solely with each
state’s governor. 41

• Need for thyroid protection after a nuclear
attack on the United States.

After a nuclear attack, very few of the survivors
would be able to obtain potassium iodide or to get
advice about when to start taking it or stop taking it. In
areas of heavy fallout, some survivors without potas-
sium iodide would receive radiation doses large enough
to destroy thyroid function before modern medical
treatments would again become- available. Even those
injuries to the thyroid that result in its complete failure
to function cause few deaths in normal times, but under
post -attack conditions thyroid damage would be much
more hazardous.

• Ways to obtain potassium iodide
for prophylactic use.

* By prescription.

With a prescription from a doctor, a U.S.P.
saturated solution of potassium iodide can be bought at
many pharmacies today. (In a crisis, the present local
supplies would be entirely inadequate.) The saturated
solution contains a very small amount of a compound
that prevents it from deteriorating significantly for a
few years. It is best stored in a dark glass bottle with a
solid, non-metallic cap that screws on liquid-tight. A
separate medicine dropper should be kept in the same
place. An authoritative publication 36 of the National
Committee on Radiation Protection and Measurements
states: “Supplies of potassium iodide can be stored in a
variety of places, including homes, ...”

In 1990 the price of a 2-ounce bottle of U.S.P.
saturated solution of potassium iodide, which is
sold by prescription only, ranges from about
$7.00 to $11.00 in Colorado. A 2-ounce bottle
contains about 500 drops. Four drops provide
the daily dose of 130 mg for adults and for
children older than one year. For babies less
than one year old, the daily dose of a saturated
solution is two drops (65 mg). Thus approximate-
ly 99% effective protection against the subse-
quent uptake of radioactive iodine by the thyroid
can be gotten by taking saturated potassium
iodide solution. If bought by prescription, today
the recommended daily dose costs 6 to 9 cents.

* Without prescription.

In 1990 the leading company selling 130-mg
potassium iodide tablets without prescription
and by mail order in the United States is ANBEX,
Inc., P.O. Box 861, Cooper Station, New York,

N.Y. 10276. Two bottles, each containing fourteen
130-mg potassium iodide tablets, cost $10.00.
Thus the cost per 24-hour dose is 36 cents. To the
best of my knowledge, the company in the U.S.
that in July of 1990 is selling 130-mg KI tablets
without prescription at the lowest price is Pre-
paredness Products, 3855 South 500 West, Bldg.
G, Salt Lake City, Utah 84115. This company
sells 14 tablets, in a brown, screw-cap glass
bottle, for $3.50, postpaid, including shipping
charges. For three or more bottles, the price is
$2.50 per bottle.

After the disastrous Russian nuclear power
reactor accident at Chernobyl in May of 1986,
pharmacies in Sweden soon sold all of their 130-
mg potassium iodide tablets and Poland limited
its inadequate supplies of prophylactic iodide
salts to the protection of children. In California,
pharmacists reported abnormally large sales of
iodine tablets, and also of tincture of iodine —
apparently due to the buyers’ having been mis-
informed by the media’s reports that Europeans
were taking “iodine” for protection.

Individuals can buy chemical reagent grade
potassium iodide, that is purer than the phar-
maceutical grade, from some chemical supply
firms. No prescription or other authorization is
necessary. In 1990 the least expensive source of
which I am aware is NASCO, 901 Jamesville
Avenue, Fort Atkinson, Wisconsin 53538. The
price for 100 grams (100,000 mg) in 1990 is $10.50,
plus $2.00 to $4.00 for shipping costs. Thus the
cost in 1990 for a 130-mg daily dose is less than 2
cents. NASCO sells 500 grams (500,000 mg—
about one pound) for $35.50, plus $2.00 to $4.00
for shipping — making the cost per standard
daily dose only one cent.

For years of storage, crystalline or granular potas-
sium iodide is better than a saturated solution. Dry
potassium iodide should be stored in a dark bottle with
a gasketed, non-metallic cap that screws on tightly.
Two-fluid-ounce bottles, filled with dry potassium
iodide as described below, are good siz.es for a family.
Separate medicine droppers should be kept with stored
bottles.

Thus at low cost you can buy and store
enough potassium iodide for your family and
large numbers of your friends and neighbors—
as I did years ago.

• Practical expedient ways to prepare and
take daily prophylactic doses of a saturated
solution of potassium iodide.

To prepare a saturated solution of potassium
iodide, fill a bottle about -60% full of crystalline or
granular potassium iodide. (A 2-fluid-ounce bottle,
made of dark glass and having a solid, non-metallic.

screwcap top. is a good size for a family. About 2
ounces of crystalline or granular potassium iodide is
needed to fill a 2-fluid-ounce bottle about 60% full.)
Next, pour safe, room-temperature water into the
bottle until it is about 90% full. Then close the bottle
tightly and shake it vigorously for at least 2 minutes.
Some of the solid potassium iodide should remain
permanently undissolved at the bottom of the bottle;
this is proof that the solution is saturated.

Experiments with a variety of ordinary household
medicine droppers determined that 1 drop of a saturated
solution of potassium iodide contains from 28 to 36 mg
of potassium iodide. The recommended expedient
daily doses of a saturated solution (approximately 130
mg for adults and children older than one year, and 65
mg for babies younger than one year) are as follows;

* For adults and children older than one year, 4
drops of a saturated solution of potassium iodide each
24 hours.

* For babies younger than one year, 2 drops of a
saturated solution of potassium iodide each 24 hours.

Potassium iodide has a painfully bad taste, so
bad that a single crystal or 1 drop of the saturated
solution in a small child’s mouth would make
him cry. (A small child would be screaming in
pain before he could eat enough granular or
crystalline KI to make him sick. Some KI
tablets are coated and tasteless.) Since many
persons will not take a bad-tasting medication, especially
if no short-term health hazards are likely to result from
not taking it. the following two methods of taking a
saturated solution are recommended:

* Put 4 drops of the solution into a glass of milk or
other beverage, stir, and drink quickly. Then drink
some of the beverage with nothing added. If only water
is available, use it in the same manner.

* If bread is available, place 4 drops of the solution
on a small piece of it; dampen and mold it into a firm
ball the size of a large pea, about Vs inch in diameter.
There is almost no taste if this “pill” is swallowed
quickly with water. (If the pill is coated with margarine,
there is no taste.)

As stated before, 4 drops of the saturated solution
provide a dose approximately equal to 130 mg of
potassium iodide.

* Preparing potassium iodide tablets
to give to infants and small children.

The official FDA instructions for using KI
tablets state that one half of a 130-mg tablet,
“first crushed”, should be given every 24 hours
to "babies under one year of age", and that a
whole tablet should be crushed “for small
children."

Putting even a small fraction of a crushed
or pulverized potassium iodide tablet on one’s
tongue is a startling experience, with a burning
sensation. A slightly burnt sensation continues
for hours. Therefore, a mother is advised to
make this experiment where her children cannot
see her.

To eliminate the painfully bad taste of a
crushed or pulverized KI tablet, first pulverize
it thoroughly. Next stir it for a minute into at
least 2 ounces of milk, orange juice, or cold
drink, to make sure that the KI (a salt) is
completely dissolved. Then the taste is not
objectionable. If only water is available, stir the
pulverized tablet into more than 2 ounces of
water.

KI is a corrosive salt, more injurious than
aspirin to tissue with which it is in direct
contact. Some doctors advise taking KI tablets
after meals, except when so doing would delay
taking the initial dose during an emergency. All
recognize that taking a dilute solution of KI is
easier on the stomach than taking the same dose
in tablet form. This may be a consequential
consideration when taking KI for weeks during
a prolonged nuclear war emergency.

• WARNINGS

* Elemental (free) iodine is poisonous, except
in the very small amounts in water disinfected
with iodine tablets or a few drops of tincture of
iodine. Furthermore, elemental iodine supplied
by iodine tablets and released by tincture of
iodine dropped into water is not effective as a
blocking agent to prevent thyroid damage. If
you do not have any potassium iodide, DO NOT
TAKE IODINE TABLETS OR TINCTURE OF
IODINE.

* DO NOT MAKE A FUTILE, HARMFUL
ATTEMPT TO EAT ENOUGH IODIZED SALT
TO RESULT IN THYROID BLOCKING. Iodized
salt contains potassium iodide, but in such a
low concentration that it is impossible to eat
enough iodized salt to be helpful as a blocking
agent.

OTHER WAYS TO PREVENT
THYROID DAMAGE

Besides the prophylactic use of potassium
iodide, the following are ways to prevent or
reduce thyroid damage under peacetime or war-
time conditions:

* Do not drink or otherwise use fresh milk
produced by cows that have consumed feed or

water consequentially contaminated with fall-
out or other radioactive material resulting from
a peacetime accident or from nuclear explosions
in a war.

* As a general rule, do not eat fresh vege-
tables until advised it is safe to do so. If under
wartime conditions no official advice is obtain-
able. avoid eating fresh leafy vegetables that
were growing or exposed at the time of fallout
deposition; thoroughly wash all vegetables and
fruits.

* If a dangerously radioactive air mass is
being blown toward your area and is relatively
small (as from some possible nuclear power
facility accidents), and if there is time, an ordered
evacuation of your area may make it unneces-
sary even to take potassium iodide.

* For protection against inhaled radioactive
iodine, the FDA Final Recommendations (which
are mentioned in the preceding section) state
that the following measures “should be con-
sidered”: “ . . . sheltering [merely staying indoors
can significantly reduce inhaled doses], evacua-
tion, respiratory protection, and/or the use of
stable iodide.”

Research has been carried out in an effort to
develop a thyroid protection procedure based on
the ordinary iodine solutions which are used as
disinfectants. Since iodine solutions such as
tincture of iodine and povidone-iodine are dan-
gerous poisons if taken orally, these experi-
ments have utilized absorption through the skin
after topical application on bare skin.

All reported experimental topical applica-
tions on human skin have given less thyroid
protection than does proper oral administration
of potassium iodide. Moreover, undesirable side
effects of skin application can be serious. For
these reasons researchers to date have not rec-
ommended a procedure for the use of ordinary
iodine solutions for thyroid protection.

Potassium iodide, when obtained in the
crystalline reagent form and used as recom-
mended above on pages 114 and 115, is safe,
inexpensive, and easy to administer. Prudent
individuals should obtain and keep ready for
use an adequate supply of potassium iodide well
in advance of a crisis.

Chapter 14

Expedient Shelter Furnishings

IMPORTANCE OF ADEQUATE
FURNISHINGS

Throughout history, people have endured being
crowded together while living and sleeping on hard
surfaces. In times of war and privation, people have
lived in such conditions for much longer periods than
would be necessary for shelter occupancy due to
fallout. 4 ' Realistic basement-shelter-occupancy tests
conducted by research contractors for the U .S. Office
of Civil Defense (now the Federal Emergency
Management Agency) have shown that modern
Americans can live and sleep for two weeks on a
concrete floor. In some of these tests, only 8 square feet
of floor space was provided for each person; only pieces
of corrugated cardboard 3/ 16-inch thick lessened the
hardship of sleeping and sitting on concrete. 13

Nevertheless, shelters should be adequately
furnished whenever possible, for these reasons:

• More people can occupy a properly furnished
shelter — for weeks, if necessary — if adequate addi-
tional ventilation is supplied for the additional
occupants.

• Cleanliness, health, and morale are better if well-
designed furnishings are used. More serious compli-
cations than discomfort are likely to result if
occupants have to huddle together on a bare
floor — especially if the floor is damp earth.

• Persons occupying a shelter made relatively
comfortable by its furnishings are more likely to stay
in the shelter long enough to avoid dangerous
exposure to fallout radiation.

CHAIRS, BENCHES, AND BUNKS

The father of the previously described Utah
family of six knew that the members of his family
would be most uncomfortable and probably would
have sore backs if they spent the required 72 hours of
continuous shelter occupancy huddled on the floor.
( Their shelter room was only 3'/2 feet wide and 16'/2
feet long.) So this family took with them from home
four folding chairs and two pieces of plywood (each
2 1 inches wide by 6 feet long) tied as part of the load
on top of the family car. Four small wooden boxes
served as food containers during the drive to the
shelter-building site. In the shelter, the boxes were
used to support the ends of two narrow plywood
bunks (Fig. 14.1).

The family’s system of sleeping and sitting in
shifts worked reasonably well. There were discom-
forts: the adults found the two plywood bunks too
narrow, and the plywood was so hard that all the
family members used their sleeping bags for padding
rather than for needed warmth on chilly nights. The
father and oldest son, whose turn to sleep was during
normal waking hours, had trouble sleeping in such a
small shelter while the lively 4-year-old son was
awake.

Note that in the shelter pictured in Fig. 14.1 the
earth walls are covered with plastic from trash bags.
Covering earth walls with plastic or bed sheets makes
for a cleaner shelter, with less earth falling in the faces
of people who sleep on the floor. Bedsheets on the
walls make a shelter brighter, but are flammable and
a potential fire hazard. The plastic film prevented the

Fig. 14.1. Bunks and folding chairs furnished
this Pole-Covered Trench Shelter. (Note the sus-
pended transistor radio. Reception is good in all
types of expedient shelters tested to date.)

Fig. 14.2. Benches with overhead bunks in a
skillfully designed Small-Pole Shelter of Russian
design. Three rural families in a wooded area of
Tennessee built this expedient blast shelter in 48
hours, including the time spent felling trees and
making furnishings.

earth walls from drying and crumbling as a result of
the hot, dry desert air pumped through the shelter
during the day.

Benches with overhead wooden bunks are
shown in Fig. 14.2. These were installed in a Small-
Pole Shelter 6 feet wide with a ceiling almost 7 feet
high.

A well-designed expedient shelter should be as
small as practical, with all space used very efficiently.
The builders should make the heights and widths of
benches and bunks as specified in the detailed shelter
drawings, such as those for the Small-Pole Shelter
given in Appendix A. 3.

Serious difficulties can result from failure to use
specific dimensions that may appear unimportant.
For example, in field tests at Fort Bragg, N.C., 48

airborne infantrymen, working only with hand tools,
cut pine trees and built two 24-man Small-Pole
Shelters in less than 24 hours/ 3 The men did not
think it necessary to use the specific dimensions when
they made the furnishings. As a result, they built the
benches too high and the overhead bunks too far
below the ceilings. This error forced the men to sit for
hours in hunched positions. Even these able-bodied
young men would have developed very sore backs
and would have wanted very much to leave their
shelters if they had been forced to sit in a bent-over
position for days.

Figure 14.2 shows a good example of the
importance of using dimensions which have been
thoroughly field-tested when building essential parts
of a shelter. Note the small air-exhaust opening
above the girl lying on the overhead bunk at one end

of the shelter. This opening led to a small, chimney-
like, air-exhaust duct made of boards, with its cross-
sectional area as specified in Russian civil defense
handbooks for natural ventilation of small expedient
shelters. With such a small air-exhaust opening —
only 4 square inches (10 square centimeters) per
person — a fully occupied shelter of this size would
soon become dangerously overheated in warm or
hot weather, even though a good low-pressure
expedient shelter- ventilating pump (a KAP
or a Directional Fan) were to be used. A much
larger air-exhaust opening is needed. See
Appendix A.3.

BEDSHEET-HAMMOCK AND CHAIR

On the last night of the Utah family’s shelter
stay it was clear that the six members would win the
cash bonus offered them for their 72-hour occupancy
of the shelter starting immediately after they com-
pleted building it. Therefore, the author showed them
that night how to make boat-shaped hammocks out of
bedsheets. (Any strong cloth of the right size can be
used.) They were shown how to hang these short, yet
stable, hammocks securely from poles of the shelter
roof. With three members sleeping in hammocks, two
on the plywood bunks, and one on the floor, all six
could sleep at the same time. Figure 14.3 shows part of
this sleeping arrangement.

Fig. 14.3. Girl resting in a boat-shaped ham-
mock. Her brother slept on the upper bunk of their
3 1 rft-wide trench shelter.

In a shelter this size without bunks, hanging four
short hammocks at slight angles to the length of the
trench would permit four occupants to sleep
comfortably. An additional two persons could sleep

on the floor. In the Utah family’s shelter, the floor
was made comfortable by covering the damp earth
with pieces of polyethylene cut from trash bags, then
placing strips of shag rug over the plastic.

In shelters with ceilings at least 6 feet high, one
hammock can be hung above another. In a Small-
Pole Shelter that is 6 feet wide, a greater number of
people can sleep or sit comfortably at the same time if
Bedsheet-Hammocks and Bedsheet-Chairs are used
rather than benches or a combination of benches and
overhead bunks. Figure 14.4 shows how Bedsheet-
Hammocks can be used like double-deck bunks.

Fig. 14.4. Bedsheet-Hammocks hung one above
the other across the room of a Russian-type Small-
Pole Shelter made of lumber.

Detailed instructions for making a Bedsheet-
Hammock and a Bedsheet-Chair are given at the end
of this chapter.

In an evacuation during a real crisis, carrying
comfortable folding chairs and the materials to make
wooden bunks would not be advisable. If the family
car were loaded instead with an equivalent weight of
additional food and clothing, the members’ prospects
of surviving would be improved. But in an actual
crisis evacuation, a family planning to occupy a
shelter with a strong roof should take along a
bedsheet for each member. The other lightweight
items described in the instructions for making a
Bedsheet-Hammock and a Bedsheet-Chair also
should be carried. By following the instructions at the
end of this chapter, a comfortable hammock can be
made and quickly converted to a comfortable
suspended chair when not needed for sleeping.

Hammocks hung high off the floor and above
other sleepers must be strong, securely suspended,
and cupped so that it is impossible to fall out
accidentally. This is why the instructions emphasize
using a double thickness of bedsheet and folding the
cloth so as to make the hammock boat-like, with high
sides.

In a cold shelter, keeping warm in a hammock is
somewhat difficult. Easily compressible materials,
such as those used in a sleeping bag, are squeezed so
thin under a person’s body that they lose most of their
insulating value. Pads of newspapers about an inch
thick, protected by cloth coverings, will reduce heat
losses. The best insulation is a quilt, fastened to the
underside of a hammock by attaching it with rows of
stitches every few inches and at right angles to each
other.

Figure 14.5 shows a Bedsheet-Hammock that
had been quickly converted into a Bedsheet-Chair
and hung near a shelter wall. It occupies less than half
the floor space used by the two hammocks shown in
the preceding illustration. If a reclining seat is
desired, the two support-points on the ceiling to
which the chair-arm cords are attached can be
located farther out from the wall.

Enough padding material should be placed in
the bowl-shaped seat of a Bedsheet-Chair to make it
rather flat. Extra clothing or a folded blanket can be
used. The three cords suspending the chair should be
adjusted for length so that the sitter’s feet can rest on
the floor and the edge of the chair seat does not press
on the undersides of his thighs. (Such pressure cuts
off circulation. During the London Blitz of World
War II, many of the people who sat night after night
in shelters on folding chairs with canvas seats

Fig. 14.5. A Bedsheet-Hammock converted
into a comfortable suspended Bedsheet-Chair.

developed serious leg conditions. Authorities later
prohibited bringing such chairs into shelters.)

CAUTION: To prevent skin infections and
other diseases from spreading, a person’s
hammock or chair should not be used by others.
This precaution is particularly important if the
shelter is hot and its occupants are sweaty.

HOW TO MAKE A BEDSHEET-HAMMOCK
AND CONVERT IT TO A SUSPENDED
BEDSHEET-CHAIR

1. PURPOSE: To enable more people to occupy a
shelter more comfortably.

2. ADVANTAGES:

* The hammock can be made in a few minutes,
once you have the materials and the know-
how.

* The only materials required are a strong
double-bed sheet (or an equally large piece of

any strong fabric), a few feet of rope (or a
piece of strong fabric from which expedient
“rope” can be made quickly), a few large nails,
and some wire.

* It is difficult to fall out of the hammock
because its sides are each made about 8 inches
shorter than its lengthwise mid-section, so as
to produce a boat-like shape.

* It provides room for head and shoulders close
to either end; thus it is practical to hang this
hammock between supports that are as close
together as 6 feet. See Fig. 14.6.

Before beginning work, someone should read
aloud all of the instructions for making the
hammock. This will help to avoid mistakes.

Fig. 14.6. The author lying in a Bedsheet-
Hammock. (Note that he is pulling the operating
cord of a homemade shelter-ventilating pump, a
KAP.)

MAKING A BEDSHEET-HAMMOCK
A. How to fold and tie the bedsheet:

1. Select a strong double-bed sheet (one
containing polyester is best) and use a ruler or
tape measure to avoid guessing at measure-
ments.

2. Fold the bedsheet lengthwise down its center
line, so that pairs of corners are together.

3. With the sheet folded, mark the center of
each of the two folded ends; then hold one
end up.

4. Starting at one corner of one end of the
folded bedsheet, make accordion-like pleats.

Make each pleat about 2 inches wide; make
the left corner of each pleat about 1 inch
lower than the left corner of the preceding
pleat, when the sheet is being held as
illustrated. Use your left hand to hold the
completed pleats in place, while making new
pleats with your right hand.

ORNL-DWG 77-17387

OHIR.-OWC

5. When one-half of the upper end of the sheet
has been folded into pleats almost to the
CENTER MARK, adjust the pleats so that
the CENTER MARK is about 4 inches below
the STARTING CORNER.

6. Continue making 2-inch pleats on past the
CENTER MARK, but make the right corner
of each pleat about 1 inch higher than the
right corner of the preceding pleat. When the
pleat-folding is completed, the STARTING
CORNER and the other corner should be at
the same height (4 inches) above the
CENTER MARK.

7. Tie the hammock-supporting rope tightly
around the end of the. sheet about 3 inches
below the edge with the CENTER MARK.
(If a rope strong enough to support at least
the weight of two men is not available, make
an expedient “rope” by tearing a 16-inch-
wide strip from a sheet or other strong cloth
and then rolling this strip crosswise to its
length to make a tight roll several feet long.
Then tie string or small strips of cloth about 1
inch wide around it, spaced 4 to 6 inches
apart, to keep the rolled-up cloth from
unrolling.)

8. Bend the pleat-folded end of the sheet
downward around the hammock rope, so
that the knot of the hammock rope is
uppermost.

9. To keep the sheet from being pulled through
the encircling hammock rope, bind the
doubled-over end of the sheet with cord (or
with narrow strips of cloth) about 1 inch
below the rope. Tie the binding cord at least
four times around, knotting it each time
around.

10. Repeat the procedure (4 through 9) with the
other end of the double-folded sheet, thus
producing a boat-shaped hammock with its
two sides each about 8 inches shorter than its
lengthwise center section.

CENTER MARK

TIE ROPE TIGHTLY
AROUND FOLDED
SHEET HERE, 3
INCHES BELOW THE
EDGE WITH THE
CENTER MARK

OHW.-OWG 77-17394

How to hang the hammock:

1. To suspend a hammock from a strong
wooden roof such as the poles of a Pole-
Covered Trench Shelter, drive two strong
nails (at least 3 V 2 inches long) into the wood
at approximately 45° angles, crossing and
touching each other. Bind the two nails
together with wire. To prevent a hammock
rope from being rubbed directly against fixed
metal, make a loose loop of strong wire (best
if doubled) through the crossed nails; tie the
hammock rope to this free-moving wire loop.

2. To suspend the hammock from a wooden
wall, use the same type of crossed-nails
supports, with the nails driven in one above
the other.

3. For comfort and safety, hang the hammock
with the head end 18 inches higher than the
center and with the foot end 24 inches higher
than the center.

4. To make sure that the hammock is strong
enough, two persons should place their open
hands on its centerline and put all of their
weight on the hammock.

5. To suspend hammocks and hammock-chairs
from a pole roof that is not being built under
fear of immediate attack, use loops of strong
wire around the poles at the planned support
points. (The correct placement of wire loops
takes considerable time and delays comple-
tion of the shelter.) To reduce stresses and
possible breakage, the loops should be loose,
as illustrated.

ORNL-DWG 78-6321

MAKING A SUSPENDED BEDSHEET-CHAIR

A Bedsheet-Hammock may be quickly con-
verted into a comfortable Suspended Bedsheet-Chair
so that a shelter occupant can sit comfortably, yet
occupy less floor space during the daytime. Follow
these steps:

1. Select one end of the hammock to be the top of
the back of the chair.

2. From this end, measure 52 inches (4 ft 4 in.)
along each side-edge of the hammock (see
sketch), and mark these two spots.

3. About 2 1 2 inches in from these two marks
(toward the centerline of the hammock), make
two more marks.

4. To make an attachment point for a chair “arm”,
hold a pebble (or a lump of earth) under one of
these last marks, pull the double-thickness cloth
tight around the pebble, and tie it in place. (See
illustration.) Repeat on the other side-edge of the
hammock.

5. Tie the end of one rope (or “rope” made of 10-
inch-wide strip of strong cloth) to one attach-
ment point, and the end of another rope to the
other attachment point.

6. Suspend the top of the back of the chair to a
suspension point on the ceiling at least 4 inches
out from the wall, and adjust the length of this
suspending rope so that the chair arms will be
about the same height from the floor as the arms
of an easy chair (see sketch).

7. Suspend the arms of the chair from two
suspension points 20 inches apart and 20 inches
farther out from the wall than the suspension
point of the back of the chair. (Study the
illustration.)

8. Fold the unused end of the hammock up and
back into the "seat” of the chair; fill the hollow of
the seat with coats, a blanket, or anything else
soft, to make it comfortable.

9. Adjust the lengths of all three suspending ropes
so that the chair seat is the right height for the
person sitting in it. When both feet are Hat on the
floor, the front edge of the seat should not press
against the undersides of the thighs.

10. To simplify repeated conversion of the hammock
to a chair, mark the spot on each of the 3

ORNL DWG 77-18432

suspending ropes where each is tied to its
suspension point on the ceiling; also mark the
spot on each suspending rope for a chair arm
where each is tied to its suspension point on a
chair arm. If enough light rope or strong cord is
available, the easiest and quickest way to connect
and disconnect the arm supports is to suspend
each arm with a double strand of rope, looped
around an attachment point as illustrated by the
sketch of the attachment point.

Chapter 15

Improvised Clothing and Protective Items

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF
COLD WEATHER CLOTHING

If Americans would learn to use skillfully the
ordinary clothing, towels, cloth, newspapers, and
paper bags in their homes, they could keep warm
enough to stay healthy — even under much colder
conditions than they believe endurable without
specialized outdoor winter clothing. Efficient cold-
weather clothing can be improvised if the following
ways of conserving body heat are understood and
used:

• Trap “dead "air. Covering enough of your body
with a thick layer of trapped “dead" air is the basic
requirement for keeping warm. Figure 15.1 shows
how efficient body insulation 'works: Both the air
warmed by close contact with the skin and the water
vapor from evaporated perspiration flow' outward
into the insulating material. Any material that breaks
up and separates air into spaces no more than */» inch

ORNL-DWG 77-18426

across has efficient cells of “dead" air. Air that is
within ’/i6 inch of any surface — whether that of a
filament of goose down or of a piece of paper — is
slowed down by “sticking” to that surface and
becoming hard to move. Trapped “dead” air moves
outward very slowly, carrying heat away from the
body at a slow rate — thus minimizing heat losses by
convection.

• Use windbreaker materials. An outer wind-
breaker layer of clothing that is essentially air-tight,
such as a brown paper bag worn over a knit wool cap,
prevents the escape of warmed air and results in an
insulating layer of trapped “dead” air. A single layer
of good windbreaker material also prevents cold
outside air from being blown into the insulating
material and displacing warmed air (Fig. 15.1).

The best windbreaker materials permit very little
air to pass through them, while at the same time they
allow water vapor to escape. Perspiration that cannot
be felt or seen on cool skin continually evaporates,
forming warm water vapor close to the skin. This
moisture escapes outward through good insulating
and windbreaker materials; as a result, underlying
body insulation remains dry and efficient. Water
vapor can pass readily through many sheets of
newspaper or unglazed brown paper, although not
enough wind can flow through a single sheet to be
felt.

• Prevent excessive heat iosses by conduction.

Body heat also is lost by conduction — the direct flow
of heat into a colder material. For example, if one
sleeps in an excellent goose-down sleeping bag laid
directly on cold ground, body weight will compress
the down to a small fraction of an inch. This barrier
to heat flow is too thin and will cause the body to lose
heat rapidly to the cold earth. Likewise, the soles of

ordinary shoes are such poor insulators that standing
or walking on frozen ground sometimes results in
frozen feet.

MINIMIZING HEAT LOSSES
FROM HEAD AND NECK

warmer by insulating his head and neck very well.
(One difficulty in following this advice is that a well-
covered head often will feel unpleasantly warm —
even sweaty before one’s body temperature rises
enough to increase the warming flow of blood to
hands and feet.)

The head and neck of the girl pictured in Fig.
15.2 are insulated almost as well as if she were
wearing the hood of a skin-side-out Eskimo parka.
She folded a large, fluffy bath towel and placed it
over her head, neck, and the upper part of her body.
A brown paper bag was worn over the towel. The
edges of the face hole cut in the bag were taped to
prevent tearing. A strip of cloth was tied around the
part of the bag over her neck. Such a parka-like
covering not only is the most efficient way to insulate
the head and neck but also prevents air warmed by
the body from escaping upward around the neck. The
girl also is wearing a man’s shirt large enough to cover
and hold thick newspaper insulation around her
body and arms.

Fig. 15.2. A bath towel and a paper bag used to
efficiently insulate head, neck, and shoulders.

It is very important to prevent heat losses from
the head and neck, which have many blood vessels
near the skin surface. Heat losses from these vital
parts cannot be sensed nearly as well as heat losses
from other parts of the body. Furthermore, blood
vessels near the surface in the head and neck do not
automatically constrict to reduce heat losses, as they
do in other parts of the body when heat is being lost
faster than it can be supplied by metabolism. So when
a person is in the cold- particularly when inac-
tive — he should keep his hands, feet, and whole body

INSULATING THE WHOLE BODY

Occupants of freezing-cold shelters can keep
warm enough to sleep without blankets by skillfully
using ordinary indoor clothing plus paper and pieces
of cloth to insulate their whole bodies. The girls
pictured in Fig. 15.3 slept without a blanket in a
frozen Door-Covered Trench Shelter while the night
temperature outdoors dropped to 10°F. The shelter’s
ventilation openings were adjusted so that the inside
temperature remained a few degrees below freezing,
to prevent frozen earth from melting into icy mud.
These girls had insulated themselves well. First, they
covered their cotton shirts and pants with 10
thicknesses of newspaper wrapped around their
bodies and tied with strips of cloth. Then around each
arm and leg they wrapped and tied 8 sheets of
newspaper, thus insulating their limbs with at least 16

Fig. 15.3. Girls wearing expedient clothing are
prepared for sleeping in the freezing-cold trench
shelter.

thicknesses. As an outer covering over their legs, they
wrapped wide strips torn from a bedsheet. Their
expedient foot coverings were of the type described in
a following paragraph. Their heads and necks were
insulated with towels covered with brown paper bags.
Old cotton raincoats allowed water vapor to pass
through and helped hold in place the insulating
newspapers, which extended to cover the girls’ bare
hands.

The girls slept on newspapers spread about an
inch thick over the gravel floor of the trench. When
sleeping on cold or frozen ground, it is best to place
newspapers or other insulation on top of a layer of
small limb-tips or brush, so that drying air can
circulate under the bedding. A sheet of plastic under
bedding will keep it from being dampened by a wet
floor but will not prevent it from being dampened
after a few days by condensed water vapor from the
sleeper’s body.

Newspaper and other paper through which
water vapor can pass are such good windbreaker
materials that they can be used under any loose-
fitting outer garment — even one through which air
can pass quite readily. They also provide good
insulation. Figure 15.4 shows the author coming out
of an icy shelter at sunup. Many thicknesses of

newspaper covered my body and arms and extended
like cuffs from my sleeves. A porous cotton bathrobe
covered the newspapers and helped hold them in
place. Because so little heat was lost through this
clothing, plenty of warm blood continued to flow to
my bare hands, ridding my body of excess heat by
radiation.

IMPROVISED WINTER FOOTWEAR

Cold-weather footwear that is warmer than all
but the best-insulated winter boots can be improvised
readily. The trick is learning how to tie the several
insulating layers securely in place, so that you could
hike for miles in the snow if necessary.

For use in dry snow, first tie a porous insulating
layer — such as two bath towels or 10 big sheets of
newspaper — over each shoe. If you have no low-
heeled shoes, make a paper sole by folding 3 large
newspaper sheets to make a sole that has 72
thicknesses of paper. Then proceed in the following
manner:

1. Place your foot and the sole on 10 newspaper
sheets, as pictured in Fig. 15.5.

Fig. 15.4. The author emerges after a night’s sleep in freezing-cold temperatures inside a Car-Over-Trench
Shelter. Expedient clothing, primarily newspaper insulation, kept him warm without a blanket.

Fig. 15.5. Insulating a foot with a folded newspaper sole and 10 sheets of newspaper.

2. Fold all the sheets over the top of your foot while
keeping the sole in the proper place, as indicated in
Fig. 15.5.

3. Use a strip of cloth about 3 inches wide and 5 feet
long to tie the papers in front of your ankle with a
single overhand knot (half of a square knot). With
the same strip, tie another single overhand knot
over the tendon behind the ankle. Finally, tie a
bow knot in front of the ankle.

4. Cover the insulating layer with a tough fabric,
such as canvas or burlap sack material; secure
with a second strip of cloth and tie as described
above.

If the snow is wet, place a piece of strong plastic
film or coated fabric outside the insulating layer,
after securing it with the First strip of cloth. The outer
protective covering should be tied over the water-
proofing, with the second strip of cloth securing both
it and the waterproofing. (When resting orsleeping in
a dry place, remove any moistureproof layer in the
foot coverings, to let your feet dry.) Figure 15.6
shows a test subject’s waterproofed expedient foot-
covering, held in place as described above, after
a 2-mile hike in wet snow. His feet were warm,
and he had not stopped to tighten or adjust the
cloth strips.

Fig. 15.6. Expedient water-proofed foot-
covering, over a newspaper sole and other newspaper
insulation.

Persons who have not worked outdoors in icy
weather seldom realize the importance of warm
footwear for winter. Russian civil defense manuals
direct urban citizens to take winter boots with them
when they evacuate, even in summer.

KEEPING WARM WITHOUT FIRE

• If occupants of a cold room or shelter lack
adequate clothing and bedding, all should lie close
together.

• Always place some insulating material between
your body and a cold floor. (Pieces of shag rug are
excellent.) Plastic film should be placed under the
insulating material if the ground is damp.

• Go to bed or put on all your body insulation
before you begin to feel cold. Once the loss of body
heat causes blood vessels in your hands and feet to
constrict, it often is hard to get these vessels to return
to normal dilation again.

• Do not jump up and down or wave your arms to
get or to keep warm. The windchill factor is a
measure of air movement over your skin; rapid body
movements always cause some such air movement. If
practical, lie down and cover up; then do muscular
tension exercises by repeatedly tightening all your
muscles so tight that you tremble.

• Prevent sweating and the dampening of insula-
tion by taking off or opening up clothing as you begin
to exercise, before you begin to sweat.

• If you are getting cold, don’t smoke. Nicotine
causes blood vessels to constrict and the flow of
blood to hands and feet to be reduced.

• Don’t drink an alcoholic beverage to warm
yourself. Alcohol causes increased blood flow close
to the skin surface, resulting in rapid loss of body
heat. It is impossible for alcohol to make up for such
loss for very long.

RAINWEAR

All that is needed to make serviceable, impro-
vised rainwear is waterproof material and waterproof
tape. Plastic film from large trash bags will do; 4-mil
polyethylene is better; tough, lightweight, coated
fabric is best. Fabric duct tape is the best widely
available tape.

Figure 15.7 shows a pair of improvised rain
chaps. Rain chaps are separate leg coverings, each
with a loop to suspend it from one’s belt and usually
made large enough to be pulled on and off over the
shoes and trousers. Rain chaps are better than
waterproof trousers for working or walking while
wearing a poncho or raincoat, because body
movements cause drying air to be literally pumped
under the chaps. This air keeps trousers and legs dry,
and therefore warmer.

Fig. 15.7. Improvised rain chaps made of trash-
bag polyethylene and freezer tape.

In the same way, a poncho or rain cape will allow
plenty of air to reach the garments under them while
one is working. When exercise is stopped, clothing
underneath will stay dry and warm for some time.

SANDALS

Shoes are almost always in short supply for
years following a disastrous war. Except in very cold
weather, sandals can be made to serve quite well. The
best sandal designs for hard work and serious
walking have a strap around the heel and in front of
the ankle, with no thong between the toes (Fig. 15.8).

Fig. 15.8. A Ho Chi Minh Sandal, excellent
Vietnamese expedient footwear. Rubber bands cut
from an inner tube have been inserted into a sole of
auto-tire tread.

Such sandals also have the advantage of enabling one
to wear socks and other foot insulation inside the
straps.

CLOTHING TO PROTECT AGAINST
BETA BURNS

If fresh and very radioactive fallout particles
remain for long on the skin or extremely close to the
skin, beta burns result. Any clothing that keeps fallout
off the skin helps greatly. The best expedient protection
is given by an outer layer of easily removable clothing
similar to the improvised rainwear previously described,
but fully covering the hair and neck and providing
plastic trousers instead of chaps. Removable shoe
coverings are highly advisable. All such protective
coverings should be removed before entering a shelter,
or removed in the entryway before going into the
shelter room.

If a person has fallout particles on clothing that he
must continue to wear, he should vigorously brush his
outer clothing before entering a shelter room. If fallout
particles are washed off, rinsed off, or otherwise
removed from the skin within a few minutes, no beta
burns will result.

A few days after a nuclear explosion, fallout
particles are not radioactive enough to cause beta
burns. In areas of heavy fallout, the danger from
external doses of gamma radiation from fallout on the
ground will continue much longer than will the risk of
beta burns from some of these same fallout particles.

The gamma rays given off by fallout particles
brought into a shelter on clothing or bodies would
subject shelter occupants to gamma doses so small as to
be of no significance by wartime standards. Nor would
shelter occupants be endangered by radiation from the
body of a person who, before reaching shelter, had
received a gamma dose large enough to kill him many
times over. Except in science fiction stories, the body of
such a person does not become “radioactive.”

FALLOUT MASKS

For the majority of Americans in most fallout
areas, means for filtering fallout particles out of
the air they breathe would not be essential survival
equipment. 18 Most fallout particles tiny enough to
enter one’s lungs would fall to earth so slowly that
they would reach ground thousands of miles away
from the explosions. By then, radioactive decay
would make them much less dangerous, and their
deposition would be spread out over much of the earth.

In past years American-endangering Soviet war-
heads typically were between 20 and one megaton.
Explosions this large would inject almost all fall-
out particles into the stratosphere, high above rain
clouds. Today thousands of deployed Soviet ICBM
warheads are between 550 and 100 kilotons. (See
Jane's Weapon Systems, 1987-88 .) Both surface bursts
and air bursts of today's smaller warheads would
inject most of their radioactive particles into the
troposphere, from whence rain-outs and snow-outs
would bring huge numbers of even tiny particles
to earth in “hot spots” scattered across America.

Persons living in dry, windy areas often wear dust
masks and goggies to protect their noses and eyes from
dust and sand particles. If fallout particles are mixed with

dust and sand that is being blown into a shelter, then
persons in windy areas who occupy small below-ground
expedient shelters should cover their noses and mouths
with several thicknesses of towels or other cloth. Those
who have dust masks should wear them, especially when
working outside in dry, windy weather soon after fallout
deposition. Other than whole-body exposure to
gamma rays, the main danger to well informed
people would be from possible beta burns caused
by fresh, “hot" fallout particles that would collect
in nasal passageways, and from swallowed fallout
particles. (Much of the material continually elimi-
nated from the nose and throat is swallowed.) In
some fallout “hot spots” a secondary danger would
be breathing extremely small, “hot" fallout parti-
cles into one's lungs, after a rain-out of tiny fallout
particles from fallout clouds produced by today’s
typical kiloton-range Soviet warheads. In some
areas “hot" particles would be dried and blown
about by the winds within hours of their deposition
in rain showers.

Making a homemade dust and fallout mask
is still not a high priority survival project. In
normal times, it is better to buy and store good
masks and goggles. The following instruc-
tions for making a homemade mask are an
improved design based on a Russian design
(Fig. 15.9). This mask is the best of several

ORNL-DWG 78-11921

Fig. 15.9. A Russian-type homemade fallout
mask. For most Americans this will continue to be a
low-priority item as long as Russian warheads are large.

homemade types, and the following instructions for

making and using it have been field-tested.

AN INDIVIDUALLY-FITTED

FALLOUT MASK

Materials Needed:

1. Three rectangular pieces of fluffy toweling (terry
cloth preferred), each piece approximately 12 X 15
inches (or use 10 men’s handkerchiefs).

2. Elastic. (The best expedient elastic is from the
waistband of a man’s undershorts.)

3. Clear plastic (from a photo album, billfold, plastic
storm window, etc.).

4. Sewing materials.

Measurements:

1 . Tie a string vertically around your head and face,
passing it ! /2 inch in front of each of your ears and
making it quite tight.

2. Tie a second string horizontally around your
head, crossing your forehead I '/< inches above the
top of your eye sockets. These two strings should
cross each other at points X and X 1 , over your
temples.

3. Measure the distance X-to-X 1 across, your
forehead and the distance X-to-X 1 going under
your chin (around your lower jaw and next to your
throat), as indicated by Fig. 15.9.

Construction:

1 . Cut out 3 pieces of terry cloth, making the width of
each piece equal to X-to-X 1 (the curved distance
across your forehead), and the height of each piece
equal to the distance X-to-Y plus ‘/ 2 inch — that is,
equal to half the distance X-to-X 1 (measured
under your chin) plus ‘/i inch. See Fig. 15.9.

2. Cut the lower edge of each piece as illustrated.

3. Stitch the 3 pieces of terry cloth together, one on
top of the other, thus making the mask three layers

thick. Stitch around all four edges of the cloth
rectangle and down the centerline.

4. Mark and cut out the eye holes, as illustrated.
Make the mask’s dimensions smaller for children.

5. Cut one rectangle of clear plastic measuring
5‘/ 2 X 2% inches, and sew this plastic over the
outside of the eye holes, stitching the plastic
around its edges and down the centerline.

6. Fold the three pieces along their vertical center-
line and stitch the lower side together, along the
upper stitch line Y-to-Y l . Stitch ’/2 inch from the
lower edge. Then sew a second row of stitches.

7. Sew on the elastic head bands, making them short
enough to hold the mask tightly around your face.
If the elastic is from the waistband of a man’s
undershorts, use a doubled clastic both over the
top of your head and around the back of your
head. Make these elastic pieces so short that you
can just put all your Fingers comfortably between
the elastic and your head when the pieces are fully
stretched. If using a weaker elastic, be sure to
adjust the lengths to a tight fit, to prevent air leaks
under the edges of the mask. Because of the
thickness of material where the elastics are
connected to the upper corners of the mask, it may
be necessary to do this stitching by hand.

8. To keep fallout particles off your head and neck,
sew a loose-fitting piece of bedsheet cloth (not
illustrated) to the edges of the mask that fit around
your face. This cloth should extend back over
your head and down over your collar, over which
it can be tied.

Use:

Put on the mask by first placing it over your

chin, then pulling the back elastic down to fit around

the back of your head.

CAUTION:

To avoid spreading infections, each mask should

be labeled and worn by only one person.

Chapter 16

Minimum Pre-Crisis Preparations

Your chances of surviving a nuclear attack will
be improved if you make the following low-cost
preparations before a serious crisis arises. Once many
Americans become convinced that a nuclear attack is
a near certainty, they will rush to stores and buy all
available survival supplies. If you wait to prepare
until a crisis does arise, you are likely to be among the
majority who will have to make-do with inadequate
supplies of water containers, food, and materials.
Furthermore, even if you have the necessary
materials and instructions to make the most needed
survival items, you and your family are not likely to
have time to make all of them during a few days of
tense crisis.

The following recommendations .are intended
primarily for the majority who live in areas likely to
be subjected to blast, fire, or extremely heavy fallout.
These people should plan to evacuate to a safer area.
(Many citizens living outside high-risk areas,
especially homeowners with yards, can and should
make better pre-crisis preparations. These would
include building high-protection-factor permanent
shelters covered with earth.)

SHELTER

Keep on hand the tools and materials your
family or group will need to build or improve a high-
protection-factor expedient shelter: One or more
shovels, a pick (if in a hard-soil area), a bow-saw with
an extra blade, a hammer, and 4-mil polyethylene
film for rainproofing your planned shelter. Also store
the necessary nails, wire, etc. needed for the kind of
shelter you plan to build.

Keep instructions for shelter-building and other
survival essentials in a safe and convenient place.

VENTILATION-COOLING

Make a homemade shelter-ventilating pump, a
KAP, of the size required for the shelter you plan to
build or use.

WATER

Keep on hand water containers (including at
least four 30-gallon untreated polyethylene trash
bags and two sacks or pillowcases for each person), a
pliable garden hose or other tube for siphoning, and a
plastic bottle of sodium hypochlorite bleach (such as
Clorox) for disinfecting water and utensils.

FALLOUT METER

Make one or two KFMs and learn how to use
this simple instrument.

FOOD

Store at least a 2-week supply of compact, non-
perishable food. The balanced ration of basic dry
foods described in Chapter 9, Food, satisfies
requirements for adults and larger children at
minimum cost. If your family includes babies or
small children, be sure to store more milk powder,
vegetable oil, and sugar.

Continuing to breast-feed babies born during an
impending crisis would greatly simplify their care
should the crisis develop and worsen.

For preparing and cooking basic foods:

• Make a 3-Pipe Grain Mill like the one described
in Chapter 9, Food, or buy a small hand-cranked
grain mill, which grinds more efficiently than other
expedient devices.

• Make a Bucket-Stove as described in Chapter 9.
During evacuation, the stove can be used as a
container. Store some kitchen-type wooden matches
in a waterproof container.

• Keep essential containers and utensils on hand
for storing and transporting food and for cooking
and serving in a shelter.

SANITATION

A hose-vented 5-gallon can, with heavy plastic
bags for liners, for use as a toilet. Include some
smaller plastic bags and toilet paper with these
supplies. Tampons.

Insect screen or mosquito netting, and fly
bait. See Chapter 12.

MEDICINES

• Any special medications needed by family
members.

• Potassium iodide, a 2-oz bottle, and a medicine-
dropper, for prophylactic protection of the thyroid
gland against radioactive iodines. (Described in the

last section of Chapter 13, Survival Without
Doctors.)

• A first-aid kit and a tube of antibiotic ointment.

LIGHT

• Long-burning candles (with small wicks) suffi-
cient for at least 14 nights.

• An expedient lamp, with extra cotton-string,
wicks, and cooking oil as described in Chapter 11.

• A flashlight and extra batteries.

RADIO

A transistor radio with extra batteries and a
metal box in which to protect it.

OTHER ESSENTIALS

Review the EVACUATION CHECKLIST (de-
veloped primarily for persons who make no prepa-
rations before a crisis) and add items that are special
requirements of your family.

Chapter 17

Permanent Family Fallout Shelters for Dual Use

THE NEED

Having a permanent, ready-to-use, well
supplied fallout shelter would greatly improve
millions of American families’ chances of sur-
viving a nuclear attack. Dual use family shelters
— shelters that also are useful in peacetime —
are the ones that Americans are most likely to
build in normal peacetime and to maintain for
years in good condition for use in a nuclear war.

The longer nuclear peace lasts, the more
difficult it will be, even during a recognized
crisis, to believe that the unthinkable war is
about to strike us and that we should build
expedient shelters and immediately take other
protective actions. The lifesaving potential of
permanent, ready-to-use family shelters will
increase with the years.

Americans who decide to build permanent
shelters need better instructions than can be
obtained from official sources or from most
contractors. This chapter brings together fall-
out shelter requirements, based on shelters and
shelter components that have been built and
tested in several states and nations. The em-
phasis is on permanent fallout shelters that
many Americans can build for themselves. The
author believes that millions of Americans can
build good permanent fallout shelters or have
local contractors build them — if they learn the
shelter requirements outlined in the following
sections of this chapter and the facts about
nuclear weapon effects and protective measures
given in preceding chapters. Builders can use
their skills and available local resources to
construct permanent, dependable fallout shel-
ters at affordable cost.

Requirements for a permanent, dual-use
family fallout shelter follow.

A HIGH PROTECTION FACTOR,

AT AFFORDABLE COST

A permanent fallout shelter should be built
— and can easily be built — to have a high
enough protection factor to prevent its occu-
pants from receiving fatal or incapacitating
radiation doses, and also from receiving doses
large enough to seriously worsen their risks of
developing cancer in the years following an
attack. Shelters with a protection factor of 40
(PF 40) meet the minimum standard of protection
for public, shelters throughout the United States,
and permanent family fallout shelters described
in official pamphlets provide at least PF 40
protection. In almost all fallout areas, PF-40
shelters would prevent occupants from receiv-
ing fatal or incapacitating radiation doses while
inside these shelters. However, in areas of
heavy fallout the occupants of PF-40 shelters
could receive radiation doses large enough to
significantly contribute to the risk of contracting
cancer years later. Furthermore, the larger the
dose you receive while in a shelter, the smaller
the dose you can receive after you leave shelter
without being incapacitated or killed by your
total dose.

If you build a permanent shelter, you would
be foolish to build a shelter with a PF of only 40
when additional protection is so easy to obtain.
By making a shelter with a 6- inch-thick concrete
roof covered by 30 inches of shielding earth, and
with other easily attained design features shown
in Figs. 17.1 and 17.2, you can have a shelter with
a protection factor of about 1000. (An occupant
of a PF 1000 shelter will receive a radiation dose
only 1/ 1000th as large as he would receive if he
were standing outside in an open field during
the same time interval.) To attain PF 1000
protection near the inner door of the illustrated

135

Fig. 17.1. Permanent Family Fallout Shelter for Dual Use.

EXCAVATION

Fig. 17.2. Permanent Family Fallout Shelter for Dual Use.

shelter, its occupants must place containers full
of water and/or other good shielding material
against the door. They can do this easily and
quickly if the shelter is supplied with filled
water containers such as described in the Water
section of this chapter.

The illustrated shelter room has 106 square
feet of floor space — room enough for 5 adults
and the survival essentials they will need for
long occupancy, if shelter furnishings like those
described in this chapter are provided. For each
additional occupant, increase this shelter’s
length by 2 feet. To increase room size, increase
length and not width. This retains maximum
roof strength at minimum cost.

Note in Figs. 17.1 and 17.2 the 12-inch-thick
concrete wall between the landing at the foot of
the stairs and the end of the shelter room. Only a
very small fraction of the radiation coming
through the outer doors and down the stairs will
make the 90 degree turn through the inner door,
and most of this radiation will not strike shelter
occupants if they place containers filled with
water and other shielding material against the
door.

Also note the homemakeable, low cost
Double- Action Piston Pump and filter, shown in
Fig. 17.1, that even in a heat wave will supply
adequate air through the 5-inch-diameter air-
intake pipe — all described in Appendix E.

Few survival-minded Americans, before a
recognized international crisis arises, either
can afford or believe that they can afford to build
a permanent family fallout shelter costing
around $10,000 in 1987. A small reinforced con-
crete. below-ground shelter of the type specified
in official Federal Emergency Management
Agency pamphlets costs about $100 per square
foot of floor space, if built by a contractor in a
typical suburban area. Those with the needed
skills and time can save about half of this cost
by doing their own work. Also, at many building
sites where gravity drainage of the earth around
a shelter’s walls can be assured and hydrostatic
earth pressure against the walls thus prevented,
no steel reinforcement in the poured concrete or
concrete block walls is needed — unless required
by the local building code.

Caution: Steel reinforcement in the walls
and floor is needed in some clay soils that swell
when wet and exert sufficient inward and up-
ward pressure to crack unreinforced walls and
floor slabs. Consult local builders who have
learned from experience whether wall and floor
reinforcement is needed in the type of soil where
you plan to build. If needed, a grid of '/ 2 -inch
rebars, spaced at 12 inches, usually is adequate.

To save money on steel reinforcement, check
prices in salvage yards for used rebars and
substitute reinforcing materials such as junked
cable and small pipes.

How to safely pour a shelter’s concrete roof
slab without using a contractor’s usual forms
and equipment is indicated by Figs. 17.1 and
17.2. These drawings show 8-ft.-long sheets of
3 /i-inch plywood supported at their ends on
shelter walls 7 feet-6 inches apart. Preparatory
to pouring the concrete, the plywood sheets
should be supported along the centerline of the
shelter by 4"x4"s and other lumber, which can
be used later to build seats and overhead bunks.
Plywood left on the ceiling reduces condensation
and heating problems in cold weather, but in-
creases the volume of outdoor air that must be
pumped through the shelter to maintain toler-
able temperatures when it is occupied in hot
weather. This was clearly demonstrated in the
summer of 1963 when the author used SIMOCS
(simulated occupants that produce heat and
water vapor like people) to determine the habita-
bility of a six-roomlet below ground group
shelter, with a reinforced concrete roof that had
been built in this manner by six New Jersey
farm families. They had left ordinary %-inch
exterior plywood on the ceiling. Because the
hollow concrete wall-blocks and the well drained
gravel under the floor also kept heat from
escaping into the surrounding soil, and because
only natural ventilation was provided, the
temperature /humidity became dangerously
high within a few hours.

Insulating a shelter’s walls and ceiling can
be disadvantageous, because insulation makes
unavailable the “heat sink” of the shelter and its
surrounding earth. In hot weather insulation
reduces the time during which ventilation can
be stopped or restricted without disastrously
overheating the occupants.

Today, for such a shelter it would be better
to use pressure-treated, rot-proof plywood and
lumber, approved by leading building codes.
For information, write to the American Plywood
Association, P.O. Box 1 1700, Tacoma, W A 98411,
enquiring about rot-proof plywood, dimensional
lumber, and other material used in building the
All-Weather Wood Foundation. Most lumber
yards will obtain treated plywood on order, and
sell it for about 50% more than ordinary exterior
grade plywood.

Big savings in shelter construction costs are
made by using salvaged and/or used materials.
Manufacturers of pre-cast reinforced concrete
beams and floor sections often sell rejects for
very little. Most salvage yards have steel beams

and other material that make excellent roofing
for earth-covered shelters. (Shortly before the
Cuban Missile Crisis, when living near New
York, I built for myself at modest cost a very
small shelter on a well drained hillside. I made
it almost entirely of steel channels bought and
cut to order at a salvage yard.) Used cylindrical
steel tanks with closed ends often make good
low-cost permanent shelters. One of the best
low-cost family shelters that I ever went into
was on a hillside overlooking San Francisco
Bay. It was made of a salvaged steel brewing
tank that had been installed after a vertical
cylindrical entrance with a door had been welded
on it. The tank’s exterior had been protected
with a bituminous coating. Its survival-minded
owner was a brilliant Hungarian refugee who,
as a boy, had survived in a deep wine cellar
throughout the Russian siege and shelling of
Budapest. Nothing equals war experience to
teach the lifesaving value of shelters.

MINIMIZATION OF FIRE AND
CARBON MONOXIDE DANGERS

Many shelter designers and builders do not
realize the probable extent of fires after a major
nuclear attack. Nor do the big majority of them
provide shelters built under or close to a house
with adequate protection against the entry of
deadly amounts of carbon monoxide if the house
burns. Although the areas of fires resulting
from a nuclear explosion generally will be
about as extensive as the areas of significant
blast damage, 6 on a clear day a house up to
about 8 miles from ground zero can be ignited
by the thermal pulse of a 1-megaton airburst. 6
Figure 7.2 in Chapter 7 is a photograph of a car
set on fire by a nuclear explosion so far away
that the car was not even dented by the blast.
This photograph indicates how a thermal pulse
can go through window glass and ignite cur-
tains, upholstery, or dry paper, even if flam-
mable material outdoors is too damp to be
ignited. Furthermore, fires from any cause can
spread, especially in fallout areas following a
nuclear attack when firefighters may be unable
or unwilling to expose themselves outdoors to
radiation.

Good protection against carbon monoxide
is provided by a permanent earth-covered shel-
ter, built with its entry outdoors and well sepa-
rated from a house and other flammable struc-
tures, and constructed so that it can be closed
gas-tight. Both the air-intake and the air-exhaust
pipes should be installed so that they can be
quickly closed air-tight, as with screw-on fit-
tings. Such closures should be kept well greased
and securely attached close to where they would

be used. If a shelter’s entry is through a passage-
way from a house, a gasketted steel firedoor,
insulated on the shelter side, should be installed
near the house end of the passageway. The
shelter should be further protected by a second
gas-tight door, to prevent the entry of carbon
monoxide and smoke if heat from the burning
house destroys the gasket on the firedoor. If
special firedoor gaskets are not available, rubber
weatherstripping will serve. To lessen the risk
of carbon monoxide being pumped into the
shelter if the house burns and air must be
pumped into the shelter while the fire still is
smoldering, the air-intake and pump should be
at the far end of the shelter, and the air-exhaust
pipe and emergency exit should be near the
passageway from the house.

Be sure to seal electrical conduits leading
from a basement to a connected shelter, so that if
the house burns carbon monoxide can not flow
through the conduits into the shelter when fresh
outdoor air is not being pumped into the shelter.
The author, while conducting ventilation and
habitability tests of an earth-covered blast
shelter connected through a tunnel to a house’s
basement, observed air flowing out through un-
sealed conduits, the reverse of such a possible
life-endangering flow of carbon monoxide. When
the shelter was being maintained at a slight
overpressure by cranking its blower to pump in
outdoor air, a little air flowed through the un-
sealed conduit into the basement.

For ways to minimize carbon monoxide
dangers arising from cooking, heating, lighting,
and smdking, see following sections in this
chapter.

Remember that air contaminated with only
0.16% carbon monoxide can kill you in 2 to 3
hours, and 0.04% carbon monoxide causes
frontal headaches and nausea in 2 to 3 hours.
The Navy sets its safe allowable carbon mon-
oxide concentration in air at 0.01%. ( Shelter
Habitability Studies — The Effect of Oxygen Depletion
and Fire Gasses on Occupants of Shelters, by J. S.
Muraoka, Report NCEL-TR-144, July 1961.)

PREVENTION OF CRACKS AND
WET SHELTER PROBLEMS

If wet basements are a problem in your
locality, below ground shelters are likely to be
wet and unsatisfactory unless appropriate pre-
ventative measures are taken during their
design and construction. When making plans,
you should consult local builders of satisfactory
basements. You also should question persons
who at various times of the year have observed
excavations, holes, and/or basements in your
immediate vicinity, or have noted seasonal
swampy places or springs.

The most difficult type of shelter to keep dry
for decades is one that is wholly or partially
below the water table for part or all of the year.
Concrete is not completely watertight. Water-
proof coatings and coverings often are damaged
during construction, or deteriorate with age.

139

Shelter walls sometimes crack due to settling
and earth movements. Metal shelters usually
develop small leaks long before they become
dangerously weakened.

A 100-occupant, below ground shelter, built
in 1984 near Dallas, Texas as a prototype blast
shelter for industrial workers, was flooded when
the water table rose. The poorly sealed opening
of this shelter’s emergency exit was below
ground level, and after heavy rains was below
the water table. A prudently designed shelter
has the top of its emergency exit slightly above
the surface of the surrounding earth, as illus-
trated in Fig. 17.2. All underground electric
conduits leading down into a shelter must be
well sealed to prevent entry of water.

To prevent a wholly or partially below-
water-table shelter from becoming wet inside
sooner or later, it should have a sump and an
automatic sump pump to discharge water to the
ground outside. If at any time you find that the
sump pump is discharging an appreciable
amount of water, you may have a serious wet-
shelter problem if electric power fails after an
attack.

A manually operated bilge pump and a
sufficiently long discharge hose can be bought
for about $20.00 from marine supply mail order
firms, including West Marine Products, Box
5189, Santa Cruz. California 95063, and Defender
Industries, Inc., P.O. Box 820, New Rochelle,
New York 10802-0820. (Long established marine
supply companies also are good sources of use-
proven chemical toilets, first aid kits, lights,
rope, etc.)

Shelter roof surfaces should be gently
sloped, no matter how good a waterproof coating
is to be applied. By making a concrete shelter
roof as little as 1 inch thicker along its centerline
than along its sides, so that it slopes to both
sides, the prospects are improved for having an
earth-covered coated roof that will not leak for
decades.

Figures 17.1 and 17.2 illustrate the following
ways to prevent having a wet shelter:

* Put a layer of gravel or crushed rock in
the bottom of the excavation, and install per-
forated drainage pipes if gravity drainage is
practical.

* Cover the gravel or crushed rock in the
floor area with a plastic vapor barrier before
pouring a concrete floor.

* Coat the outer surfaces of roof and walls
with bituminous waterproofing or other coating
that has proved to be most effective in your
locality.

* Backfill with gravel or crushed rock
against the walls, to keep the soil from possibly
becoming saturated. Saturated soil exerts hydro-
static pressure against walls, and may crack
them and cause them to leak. In some areas it is
more economical to cover a shelter’s coated
walls with a subsurface drainage matting (such
as Enkadrain, manufactured and sold by BASF
Corporation, Fibers Division, Enka, North
Carolina 28728). This will eliminate the costs of
backfilling with gravel or crushed rock.

NON-FLOAT ABLE SHELTERS

In most localities the water table usually is
below the depth of excavation needed to build or
install a belowground shelter. In some areas,
however, after rainy periods the water table
may rise until it is only a foot or two below the
surface. Then a watertight shelter may float
upward through the surrounding saturated soil,
unless its weight plus the weight of its covering
earth is sufficient to withstand its buoyancy. (In
many places swimming pools are kept full to
prevent them from being cracked by uneven
buoyant forces if the water table rises.)

Dramatic examples of floating shelters were
steel blast shelters, guaranteed by contractors
to be watertight, that were installed under the
lawns of some Houston, Texas homes shortly
after the Cuban Missile Crisis. When the water
table rose after heavy rains, these shelters came
up to the surface like giant mushrooms, to the
frustrated dismay of their owners and the satis-
faction of anti-defense newspaper feature
writers.

The most expensive permanent family fall-
out shelter described in a Federal Emergency
Management Agency free handout (pamphlet
H-12-1) is floatable. It is designed to be built of
reinforced concrete covered by a flagstone patio
only about 3 inches above the ground. Its 6-inch-
thick concrete roof is covered by a total thick-
ness of only 6 inches of sand and flagstone. Like
the rest of FEMA’s permanent shelters, no
prototype of this approximately PF-40 shelter
was built, nor is there any record of anyone
actually having built this shelter. In contrast,
the belowground shelter illustrated by Figs. 17.1
and 17.2 would not float even if it did not have
assured gravity drainage of the surrounding
soil through the perforated drain pipes in the
gravel on which it rests, because this shelter is
weighted down by the thick earth berm on its
roof.

ADEQUATE, DEPENDABLE
VENTILATION/ COOLING

Basic facts that you need to provide ade-
quate, dependable ventilation for a small or

medium sized shelter are given in Chapter 6,
Ventilation and Cooling of Shelters. A good
permanent shelter has two ventilation systems:

• The primary ventilation system of a small
permanent shelter should utilize a manually
operated centrifugal blower, or a homemade
Plywood Double-Action Piston Pump. (See Ap-
pendix E.) A satisfactory air pump must be
capable of supplying adequate outdoor air
through an air-intake pipe, a filter, and an air-
exhaust pipe. (See Figs. 17.1 and 17.2.) “Adequate
outdoor air” for a small shelter means at least 15
cubic feet per minute per occupant for the cooler
parts of the United States, and at least 30 cfm per
occupant in most of the country. Most per-
manent shelters have centrifugal blowers that
can not deliver an adequate volume of air in hot
weather for each planned occupant.

For a medium sized permanent shelter,
installing two or more manually powered air
pumps is both more dependable and more eco-
nomical than providing an emergency generator
and its engine to supply power to an electric
blower. The Swiss, who have made the world’s
best and most expensive per capita preparations
to survive a war, use one or more hand-cranked
centrifugal blowers to ventilate most of their
shelters.

• The multi-week and/or emergency ventila-
tion system of a permanent shelter that has an
emergency exit should depend on a homemade
KAP, made before a crisis and kept ready to use.
(See Appendix B, How to Make and Use a
Homemade Shelter-Ventilating Pump, the KAP.)
By opening both the entrance and the emergency
exit, the shelter is provided with two large, low-
resistance openings through which a KAP can
pump large volumes of air with minimum
work.

Warning: Keep screen doors and/or screen
panels ready to protect all openings against the
swarms of flies and mosquitoes likely to become
dangerous pests in fallout areas. Use your KAP
to pump adequate air through screens. Insect
screens greatly reduce natural ventilation, as
the author first noted in Calcutta while a bed-
ridden patient in a stifling hot ward of a hastily
constructed Army hospital. Because there were
no fans or blowers to pump in outdoor air or
circulate the air inside, window screens were
opened in the daytime when malaria mosquitoes
were not flying. The doctors correctly concluded
that the temperature reduction when the screens
were opened helped the patients more than they
were endangered by the entering filthy flies.
Adequate ventilation is more important than
protection from flies, but with a KAP and insect

screens you can have both. Flies, mosquitoes,
and other insects can be killed very effectively
by occasionally spraying or painting screens
and other alighting surfaces with water solu-
tions of insecticides containing permithin and
sold in many farm stores.

ADVICE ON VENTILATION
OPENINGS AND FITTINGS

• Install ventilation pipes large enough to
reduce resistance to airflow, thus increasing the
volume of air that the shelter’s pump can deliver.
A shelter with a 200-cfm pump (such as the
homemakeable Plywood Double-Action Piston
Pump described in Appendix E) should have
5-inch galvanized steel pipe. The pumps that
are installed in most family shelters deliver
only about 100 cfm or less. Four-inch pipe is
adequate for use with pumps this small, pro-
vided that the pipes have no more than two
right-angle turns below each gooseneck. (A 90-
degree L gives about as much resistance to
airflow as 12 feet of straight pipe.)

• Make and install a gooseneck with its mouth
about twice the diameter of the pipe, as indicated
in Fig. 17.1. The purpose of such a gooseneck is
to prevent more of the larger descending fallout
particles from being pumped or blown into the
shelter. For example, if 200 cfm of air is being
pumped into a shelter through a gooseneck of
5-inch-diameter pipe with its mouth also 5
inches in diameter, the velocity of the air up into
the mouth of the gooseneck is about 1,440 feet
per minute, and sand-like spherical particles
smaller than approximately 500 microns in
diameter also are “sucked” up. 6 But if the 5-inch
gooseneck’s mouth is 10 inches across, then the
upward air velocity is reduced to about 360 feet
per minute, and only particles smaller than
approximately 180 microns across are “sucked”
up. Particles in the 180 to 500 micron-diameter
range are relatively large and fall to earth in
about 40 to 70 minutes from 35,000 feet, the base
of the mushroom cloud of a 1 -megaton explosion.
(See Fig. 6.4.) These particles are very dangerous
because their radioactivity has had little time to
decay, and should be kept out of a shelter’s
ventilation system. Furthermore, large particles
retained in a shelter’s filter restrict airflow
sooner than do small ones. (If an appropriately
curved piece of 5-inch steel pipe cannot be found
in a salvage yard or elsewhere, a good welder
can use 5-inch steel pipe to make a substitute
gooseneck with two 90-degree turns.)

• Do not use air intake hoods on a permanent
shelter’s pipes, because hoods are not as effec-
tive as goosenecks in preventing fallout par-
ticles from entering ventilation pipes. Also,

pumping a given volume of air through a hood
is more work than pumping the same volume
through a gooseneck with equal cross-sectional
areas.

• Never install any screen inside a gooseneck
or air intake hood, because spider webs and the
debris that sticks to webs will greatly reduce
airflow. The author saw a gooseneck with a
blast valve built inside it: spider webs and
attached trash on this blast valve had conse-
quentially reduced the volume of air that this
shelter’s pump could deliver. Of course a screen
is much more easily obstructed than a blast
valve. Y et FEMA’s widely distributed pamphlets
on a permanent Home Fallout Shelter (H-12-1)
and on a Home Blast Shelter (H-12-3) continue
in successive editions to give detailed instruc-
tions for making an air intake hood with a
screen soldered inside it. But these shelters that
never have been built have much more serious
weaknesses, including the likelihood that the
aboveground parts of the ventilation pipes of
the blast shelter would be bent over or broken
off by blast-wind-hurled parts of buildings and
trees, even in suburbia. (350 mph is the maxi-
mum velocity of the blast wind where the blast
overpressure is 15 psi from a 1-megaton air
burst. 6 The ventilation openings of the blast-
tested expedient blast shelters described in
Appendix D are much more likely to remain
serviceable after being subjected to severe blast
effects, because blast-protector logs are placed
around their openings, that are only a few
inches above ground level.)

PREVENTION AND CONTROL
OF CONDENSATION

A shelter can be watertight, yet at certain
seasons of the year its walls, ceiling, and floor
can be dripping wet with water condensed from
entering outdoor air. (This is a serious problem,
except in arid parts of the West.) During the
winter months a shelter and its surrounding
earth get cold; then especially on some spring
days the dew point of entering outdoor air is
higher than the temperature of the shelter’s
interior surfaces. As a result, condensation
occurs on those surfaces that are cooler than the
dew point of the pumped-through air.

The most dramatic example that I have
observed of the seriousness of this condensation
problem was the dripping ceiling and wet walls
of a reinforced-concrete, family-sized shelter
that I inspected on an early spring day at the
Civil Defence College in Yorkshire, England.

Such condensation also can occur in above-
ground structures. Before World War II I had a

600-year-old bedroom in Queen’s College, Oxford
University. My bedroom’s outer wall was made
of solid limestone blocks about 15 inches thick,
simply plastered and painted on the inside. On
some spring days moisture condensed on the
inside of the cold outer wall, ran down, and
collected in little puddles on the floor. The
occasional small coal fire in my adjacent study
was barely sufficient to gradually evaporate the
water and reduce my bedroom’s humidity
enough to prevent mold from forming. This
often-repeated occurrence proves the inade-
quacy of merely keeping an electric light turned
on for heat to prevent condensation inside an
uninsulated shelter built in a cool, frequently
humid locality.

Condensation and resultant 100 percent
humid air can rust and eat away most steel
pipes. Ventilation pipes should be made of
galvanized steel or other materials that are
undamaged by seasonal condensation and 100
percent humidity. In Connecticut I saw shelter
ventilation pipes made of steel protected with
two coats of marine paint; they were badly
rusted only two years after installation.

Operating a dehumidifier with automatic
controls is the most practical way for most
people to prevent condensation and other damp-
ness problems in a shelter during peacetime.
Almost all of the Chinese shelters that I in-
spected in six cities are dual-use shelters and
typically are equipped with large dehumidifiers.
A small dehumidifier adequate for a family
shelter can be bought from a dependable mail
order company, such as Sears, for about $250 in
1987.

To save floor space and facilitate removal
of water, a dehumidifier should be installed
near a shelter’s ceiling. Then water from the
dehumidifier can be disposed of most easily
through a pipe or tube providing gravity drain-
age, best to the outdoors, second best to the
sewer. (After a nuclear attack the sewer system
may become clogged and sewage may back up
and flow into a belowground room having pipes
that normally discharge into the sewer, and that
lack check valves.) If the above mentioned ways
of removing water are not possible, a sump and
an automatic sump pump discharging water to
the ground outdoors can solve the peacetime
water disposal problem.

After an attack, electric power can be ex-
pected to fail and shelter humidity will have to
be controlled as much as possible by ventilation
with outdoor air. A simple way to learn when to
ventilate a shelter to dry it .was described in a
Russian article on shelter management: Keep

several small cans of water in the shelter. They
will be at about the same temperature as the
shelter walls when the shelter is closed and is
not being ventilated. If a filled can is exposed to
outdoor air for about 10 minutes and moisture
condenses on it (as a glass filled with an iced
drink “sweats” on a humid summer day), do not
ventilate the shelter. If no moisture condenses
on the can. ventilate.

A WALK-IN ENTRANCE

Only a small fraction of permanent family
skelters 'witkout a ■waYk.-Yn entrance kave been
kept in good condition for many years. Per-
manent family shelters with vertical or crawl-
in entrances are found so inconvenient that the
big majority of owners do not use them even for
rotated food storage. In normal peacetime, most
well informed Americans concerned with pro-
tecting their families conclude that only a shelter
skillfully designed for dual use j ustifies the cost
of building and maintaining it. Significantly,
Chinese civil defense has come to the same
conclusion regarding Chinese permanent public
shelters: those that have been built, and that still
are being built, are almost all useful both in
peacetime and in wartime.

If a family can use its shelter without
having to go outside and be exposed to rain,
snow, cold, or night problems, its dual use
shelter will be a more valuable peacetime asset
than a shelter not directly connected to the
house. Furthermore, a directly connected shelter
can be entered more quickly in a crisis, and
probably will reduce post-attack exposures to
fallout radiation received by persons carrying
things into the shelter, or by those moving
about post-attack to protect the home. The main
disadvantages of a directly connected shelter
are that it usually provides poorer protection
against heat, smoke and carbon monoxide if the
house burns and that it is more expensive to
build than an earth-covered shelter with an
outdoor walk-in entrance, such as the one illus-
trated in Figs. 17.1 and 17.2.

AN EMERGENCY EXIT THAT ALSO
PROVIDES A SECOND LARGE
VENTILATION OPENING

Having an emergency exit in a fallout shel-
ter is not as important as having one in a blast
shelter, unless the fallout shelter is under or
connected to a building. (Since buildings are
likely to burn, it is important to have a means of
escape.) However, an emergency exit makes
any shelter more practical to live in than a
shelter with only one large opening — especially
in a heavy fallout area where it may be necessary

to stay inside most of the time for weeks or
months. Occupants of a shelter with only one
large opening will not have adequate natural
ventilation and will have to keep laboriously
pumping air — at least intermittently — through
the air-supply pipes to maintain liveable tem-
perature and/or humidity conditions.

By opening both a shelter’s entrance and its
emergency exit, and taking measures to prevent
the entry of rain, snow, and all but the smallest
fallout particles (see Appendix F), natural ven-
tilation will be adequate most of the time, except
in kot , calm \n e aider . VI itd iw o tar ge openings , a
homemade KAP (see Appendix B) can be used
to pump enough outdoor air through the shelter,
with much less work than is required to pump
less air with a relatively high-pressure pump
through typical ventilation pipes.

A DEPENDABLE, HIGH-PROTECTION-
FACTOR EMERGENCY EXIT

Occupants of a shelter with a dependable
emergency exit will have less fear of being
trapped if the main entry is blocked. If they open
the exit, they also will be able to ventilate the
shelter with natural ventilation through the
entry and the exit, or with forced ventilation by
operating a KAP.

To provide excellent radiation protection, a
typical high-PF emergency exit is filled with
sand. Such an exit has a bolted-on steel plate on
its bottom inside the shelter, and an easily cut,
waterproof, plastic-film covering over its top,
which is a few inches below ground level.
Obvious disadvantages of this typical sand-
filled emergency exit include the difficulty of
safely removing the bottom plate while sand is
pressing down on it, and the impossibility of
cutting the plastic film over the top of the exit
without having fallout-contaminated earth fall
on the person who does the cutting, and into the
shelter room. Furthermore, if the earth covering
the top of an emergency exit is frozen, occupants
may be unable to break through it and get out.

An improved design of sand-filled emer-
gency exit was conceived by Dr. Conrad V.
Chester of Oak Ridge National Laboratory and
in 1986 was further improved, built, and tested
in a full-scale model by the author. As shown in
Fig. 17.2, the sand in this 26 x 26-inch square
vertical exit was supported by a piece of 3/4-
inch exterior plywood, that should be of the
previously mentioned rot-proof type, pressure
impregnated with wood preservative.

In the center of this 25 Vz x 25 Vis-inch plywood
sand-support was an 8-inch-diameter hole cov-
ered with two thicknesses of strong nylon cloth.

The double thickness of cloth was firmly at-
tached to the plywood by being folded over four
3/ 16-inch galvanized steel rods, that were
stapled to the plywood with galvanized poultry-
netting staples. (See Figs. 17.2 and 17.3.) The
nylon cloth covering the hole can be easily and
quickly cut with a knife, permitting sand to fall
harmlessly into the shelter room.

k -23*' CONCRETE RIM

•—25-1/2“ REMOVABLE SAND-SUPPORT
> 26" EXIT

Fig. 17.3. Plan of Vertical Emergency Exit,
Before Filling with Sand.

As shown in Figs. 17.2 and 17.3, the square
26 x 26-inch plywood sand-support rests on a
l>/ 2 -inch-wide rim or ledge around the 23 x 23-
inch square hole in the shelter’s reinforced
concrete roof slab. After a shelter occupant has
cut out the nylon cloth covering the hole and all
but about 30 lbs of sand has fallen or been
pushed by his hand down into the shelter room,
he can tilt the plywood sand-support up into a
vertical position, and then turn it 45 degrees.
The 26-inch width of the sand-support permits it
to be easily lifted down through the 32.5-inch-
long diagonal of the 23 x 23-inch square hole in
the shelter’s roof slab.

Note the North-pointing arrow on the ply-
wood sand-support shown in Fig. 17.3. Because
the exit of this shelter was not made perfectly
square, the sand-support could be tilted most
easily from its horizontal position into the
vertical position if it was oriented so that its
side marked “N” was to the north. A similar "N”
arrow on the lower side of this sand-support
enabled a man below it, after the exit’s lid was

tied down and before the exit was filled with
sand, to position the sand-support for easy
tilting and removal when the last of the sand
was being cleared from this exit. The sand-
support should be cut to fit the exit after the exit
is completed, because it is difficult to build an
exit exactly to specified dimensions.

The top of the emergency exit should be a
few inches above the earth around it, to prevent
rainwater on the ground from possibly running
in. Securely cover the exit’s top with a lid of
1/ 8-inch galvanized steel having a threaded
plug-hole (cut from a steel barrel) welded over a
hole cut in the lid’s center. Such a lid can be
closely fitted to the top of a concrete exit by
oiling it and pressing it against the concrete
before the concrete begins to set.

Before filling the exit with sand, while
inside the exit tie the lid down on each of its four
sides with nine loops of 3/ 32-inch nylon cord
repeatedly tightened between four galvanized
steel “ ~LT ’s” welded to the lower side of the lid,
and four “ “LT ’s” set in the shelter’s walls and
roof slab, as indicated in Fig. 17.2. Use pliers to
tighten, stretch, and hold the nylon cord while
making the loops. Then after the plywood sand-
support is positioned in the bottom of the exit,
the exit can be filled by pouring dry sand
through the plug-hold in the steel lid. Finally,
the plug-hole should be closed so that it cannot
be opened, and then made waterproof. To make
doubly sure that the lid will not rust, paint it
with a cement paint, and then with whatever
color outdoor paint you want.

A shelter occupant can cut out the nylon
cloth covering the hole in the sand-support,
remove all sand and the plywood sand-support
from this exit, cut the four tightened nylon-cord
multiple loops holding down the lid, push off the
lid, and then climb up and step outside — all in
less than 5 minutes, even if damp sand has been
used to fill the exit. (To make removal of the
sand more difficult, in his tests the author used
damp sand that does not flow freely and makes
it necessary to loosen it repeatedly, with one’s
hand and arm thrust up through the 8-inch hole
in the plywood sand- support.)

In a well designed blast shelter this sand-
filled emergency exit will provide excellent
protection against severe blast. Blast tests have
proved that a 1/ 8-inch steel lid (the equivalent
of a blast door) the size of this exit’s lid will
withstand blast effects of at least 50 psi. Further-
more, sand arching will transfer blast loadings
on the sand outward from the slightly downward
deflecting plywood sand-support to its edges,
and thence to the supporting reinforced concrete

rim or ledge around the 23 x 23-inch hole in the
shelter’s roof slab. (See Fig. 17.2.)

A small shelter with an emergency exit
near its far end has additional advantages: It
can be supplied with adequate natural ven-
tilation most of the time, with easy forced
ventilation by a K AP when forced ventilation is
needed, and with daylight illumination. Means
for attaining these advantages are described in
Appendix F.

ADEQUATE STORAGE SPACE
FOR ESSENTIALS

As will be shown in the following sections
of this chapter, about 20 square feet of shelter
floor area per family member is needed for
shelter furnishings and to store adequate water
for a month, a year’s supply of compact dry
foods, cooking and sanitary equipment, blan-
kets, tools, and other post-attack essentials.
Twenty square feet per family member also
provides enough space per person to store
winter clothing and footwear, camping equip-
ment, and foods normally kept on hand and
rotated as consumed in the course of ordinary
family living. Additional space is needed if you
plan to use your shelter as a workshop, or as a
fallout shelter to save a few of your unprepared
friends without endangering your own family.

SEATS/BUNKS/SHELVES

Seats and overhead bunks built like those
specified in Fig. 17.4 and pictured in Fig. 17.5
enable more shelter occupants to sit and sleep
more comfortably in less space than when
using any other shelter furnishings known to
the author. Note that the seat has an adjustable
backrest. This backrest is similar to the fine-
mesh nylon fishnet backrests tested in a proto-
type of an expensive blast shelter designed and
furnished at Oak Ridge National Laboratory.

Shelter habitability tests have proved the
need for backrests. Even some young German
soldiers had painfully sore backs after sitting
on ordinary benches during a 2-week shelter
occupancy test.

Backrests should be installed in peacetime
and kept ready for crisis use. rolled up against
their upper attachments and covered. Then
easily removeable storage shelves, if needed,
can be installed between benches and overhead
bunks.

To sit or sleep comfortably, pull the bedsheet
forward and then sit on about the outer foot of
the 2-foot-wide seat.

Although this 5-occupant shelter is illus-
trated with a bunk for each family member, it is

Fig. 17.4. Seat with Overhead Bunk Propor-
tioned for a Shelter Room with a 7-Ft. or Higher
Ceiling. A seat with a backrest should be 24
inches wide.

Fig. 17.5. Backrests of Bedsheet Cloth and
2-Inch-Thick Pads Make Sitting and Sleeping
Comfortable.

CONCRETE WALL

prudent to count on stored supplies making
some bunks unusable, and to realize that in a
desperate crisis it might be hard to refuse
shelter to an unprepared good neighbor. Note
that with four persons seated on a 6.5-foot-long
seat and one person on the overhead bunk, five
persons can be quite comfortably accommodated
on 25 square feet of floorspace, including plenty
of room for the sitters’ legs.

To store the most supplies in a shelter, you
should install shelves after you know the heights
of the items to be stored. Often the space between
an overhead bunk and the ceiling can best be
used by making easily removeable additional
shelves.

WATER

• Water needs: Even most well-maintained
shelters do not have enough water for prolonged
occupancy. A permanent shelter should provide
each occupant with at least 30 gallons of safe
water — enough for an austere month, except in
very hot weather.

• Containers: The most practical water con-
tainer for shelter storage is a 5-gallon rigid
plastic water can with a handle, a large diameter
opening for quick filling and emptying, and a
small spout for pouring small quantities. A 5-
gallon water can of this type sells for about $5 in
discount stores.

The plastic bottles that household chlorine
bleach is sold in also are good for multi-year
storage of drinking water, as are glass jugs.
Plastic milk jugs are not satisfactory, because
after a few years they often become brittle and
crack.

Some shelter owners do not realize that,
although a shelter can be kept dry in peacetime,
except in the arid West its air is likely to become
extremely humid after a few days of crowded
occupancy. Very humid air soon softens and
weakens cardboard containers of food and
flexible water bags.

• Disinfecting for multi-year storage: To store
safe water and keep it safe for years, first
disinfect the container by rinsing it with a
strong solution of chlorine bleach. Then rinse it
with safe water before filling it with the clear,
safe water to be stored. Next, disinfect by adding
household bleach that contains 5.25% sodium
hypochlorite as its only active ingredient, in the
quantities specified in this book’s Water chapter
for disinfecting muddy or cloudy water. To 5
gallons, add 1 scant teaspoon of bleach. Finally,
to prevent possible entry of air containing
infective organisms through faulty closures,
seal the container’s closures with duct tape.

• Making efficient use of storage space: A 5-

gallon rigid plastic water container typically
measures 7 x 12 x 21 inches, including the
height of its spout. Nine such 5-gallon containers
can be placed on a 2 x 3-foot floor area. Twenty-
seven 5-gallon containers, holding 135 gallons
of water, can be stored on and over 6 square feet
of floor if you make a water storage stand 24 x 42
x 48 inches high, built quite like the seat with
overhead bunk described in the Seats/ Bunks/
Shelves section of this chapter. This easily
moveable storage stand should have two ply-
wood shelves, one 24 inches and the other 48
inches from the floor.

• Using filled containers for shielding: Filled

5- gallon water containers can be moved quickly
to provide additional shielding where needed to
increase the protection factor of all or part of a
shelter. For example, near the inner door of the
shelter illustrated by Figs. 17.1 and 17.2 the
protection factor is less than 1000. But if enough
filled water containers are placed so as to cover
the door with almost the equivalent of an 18-
inch-thick “wall” of shielding water, the PF of
the part of the shelter room near the door can be
raised to about PF 1000.

If a shelter has twenty-seven 5-gallon cans
of water stored on and under the above-described
2-shelf water storage stand, then in less than 3
minutes 2 men can shield the shelter door quite
adequately. All they have to do is take the 18
cans off the shelves, put 9 of them on the floor
against the door and doorway, move the storage
stand over the 9 door-shielding cans, and place
the remaining 18 cans on the stand’s 2 shelves.

Equally good doorway shielding can be
provided by placing at least a 24-inch thickness
of containers full of dense food, such as whole-
grain wheat or sugar, against the doorway. Two
55-gallon drums of wheat, each weighing about
400 pounds, can be quickly “walked” on a con-
crete floor and positioned so as to shield the
lower part of a doorway. Heavy containers on
the floor can provide a stable base on which to
stack other shielding material.

• A water well: The best solution to the water
problem quite often is a well inside the shelter.
In many areas the water table is less than 50 feet
below the surface, and a 50-foot well, cased with

6- inch steel pipe, can be drilled and completed
for about S2000. Well drilling should be done
after the shelter excavation has been dug and
before the concrete shelter floor has been poured.
An in-shelter well would be of vital importance
not only to the occupants of a family shelter, but
later on probably to nearby survivors. Even if
only a gallon or so an hour could be bailed from

a well too weak to be useful in peacetime, it
would be a tremendous family asset post-attack.
If infective organisms are found in water from a
well drilled to provide water during and after an
attack, safe water for months can be assured by
merely storing a few gallons of household
chlorine bleach.

If enough water for worthwhile peacetime
use can be pumped from a well, install a sub-
mersible electric pump, with plastic pipe in the
well. Then in an emergency the pipe and the
attached pump can be pulled by hand out of the
well, with only a saw being needed to cut off
lengths of the plastic pipe as it is pulled. After
the well casing has been cleared of pump, pipe
and wires, a homemade 2-foot-long bail-bucket
on a nylon rope can be used to draw plenty of
water. (See Chapter 8, Water, for instructions.)

• Local water sources: Most Americans’ nor-
mal piped water would not run for months after
a large nuclear attack. A month’s supply of
water stored in your shelter should be adequate,
because, even if your area has heavy fallout, in
less than a month radioactive decay will make
it safe to haul water from nearby sources.

An important part of your shelter prepara-
tions is to locate nearby wells, ponds, streams,
and streambeds that when dry frequently have
water a foot or two below the surface. The
author has found that digging a water pit in an
apparently dry streambed often supplies enough
filtered water to satisfy several families’ basic
needs. To keep the sides of a water pit dug in
unstable ground from caving in, you should
drive a circle of side-by-side stakes around the
outside of your planned pit before starting to
dig. With more work and materials, you and
other survivors needing filtered water could dig
a well like the Chinese water source shown on
page 71. If you are in a fallout area, before
drinking water from a water pit you should
filter it through clayey soil to remove fallout
particles and dissolved radioactive isotopes, as
described in the Water chapter. Of course it is
prudent to chlorinate or boil all surface and
near-surface water after it has been filtered.

FOOD

• Advantages of a one-year supply: A family
that expends the money and work to build and
provision its own shelter should store a year’s
supply of long-lasting foods. If post-attack con-
ditions enable you to continue living and making
a living near your home, having a year’s food
supply will be a tremendous advantage. And if
your area is afflicted with such dangerous,
continuing fallout radiation and/or other post-

attack conditions that surviving unprepared
residents are soon forced to evacuate to better
areas, then your and your family’s chances will
be better if hunger does not force you to move
during the chaotic first few months after a
nuclear attack.

• Costs of a one year food supply for a family
shelter: Table 17.1 shows the wide range of 1987
costs of the basic survival foods for multi-year
storage that are listed and explained on page 88.

The delivered costs listed in the right hand
column include UPS shipping charges in the
nearest and least expensive of UPS's 8 zones.
For UPS shipping costs to the most distant
points in the 48 states, add 34 cents per pound
delivered.

All the foods in this survival ration, if
stored in moisture-proof and insect-proof con-
tainers (the non-fat milk powder should be in
nitrogen-packed cans), will provide healthful
nutrition for at least 10 years. The exception is
the multi-vitamin tablets, which should be re-
placed every 2 or 3 years, depending on storage
temperature. So a family that spends about $300
per member on such a one year survival ration
can consider that each of its members has been
covered by famine insurance for $30 a year.

Scurvy will be the first incapacitating, then
lethal vitamin deficiency to afflict unprepared,
uninformed Americans. A multi-vitamin tablet
contains enough vitamin C to fully satisfy the
daily requirement. However, a prudent shelter
owner also should store vitamin C tablets, that
keep for years. One hundred 500-mg generic
vitamin C tablets — 50,000 mg of vitamin C — in
1987 typically cost about $1.20 in a discount
store; a 10 mg daily dose prevents scurvy. After
a nuclear war in some areas vitamin C will be
worth many times its weight in gold.

• Sources of the basic foods listed in Table 17.1:

* Wheat: If you live in a wheat producing

area, the least expensive sources of ready-to-
store wheat usually are local seed-cleaning
firms. A hundred pounds or more of hard wheat,
dried, bagged, and ready to store in moisture
proof containers, costs about 10 cents a pound.
(Today the wheat farmer receives about 4.5
cents a pound for truckloads, usually straight
out of the field, not dry enough to store except in
well ventilated granaries, and containing trash
that makes weevil infestations more likely.) In
some communities a few stores sell big bags of
dry, cleaned hard wheat for 20 to 35 cents a
pound.

Shelter owners who are unable or unwilling
to obtain wheat from such sources can buy high

Table 17.1. A basic one-year survival ration for one adult male.

Component

Ounces

Pounds

Range of 1987 retail

Range of 1987 costs

Range of 1987 costs

per day

per year

prices in dollars per

in dollars for a one

in dollars for a one

pound. FOB.

year supply. FOB.

year supply delivered

or picked up

or picked up

and in containers for
multi-year storage

Whole-kernel
hard wheat

16

365

0.10 to 0.40

36.50 to 135.00

56 to 175

Beans, pinto

5

114

0.25 to 0.79

28.50 to 90.11

38 to 110

Non-fat
milk powder

2

46

1.68 to 3.86

77.28 to 177.56

83 to 184

Vegetable oil

1

23

0.36 to 0.57

8.28 to 13.11

9 to 14

Sugar

2

46

0.25 to 0.30

11.50 to 13.80

16 to 20

Salt, iodized

1/3

6

0.17 to 0.20

1.36 to 1.60

2 to 3

Multi-vitamin
tablets (low generic.

1 per day

365 per year

1.3 to 11.8 cents
per tablet

' 4.75 to 43.07

6 to 44

and an expensive brand)

Total $ costs

protein hard wheat at higher prices from health
food stores and a few mail order companies. The
lowest mail order FOB price known to the
author for hard western wheat in 1990 is $3.17 for
10 pounds, in a vacuum-packed metallized plastic
bag similar to the containers used for some U.S.
Army combat rations. This long-lasting wheat,
as well as other grains and legumes, is sold by
Preparedness Products, 3855 South 500 West,
Salt Lake City, Utah 84115. Another reliable mail
order source of wheat and other dry foods pack-
agedfor multi-year storage is The Survival Cen-
ter, 5555 Newton Falls Rd„ Ravenna, Ohio 44266.

* Beans, like wheat, in many communities
can be purchased from local farmers’ co-ops or
local stores at much lower delivered cost than
from mail order firms. In one small Colorado
town the co-op sold 25 pounds of pinto beans in a
polyethylene bag for $11.25—45 cents a pound.
Local supermarkets sell bulk pinto beans for
around 60 cents a pound.

* Non-fat milk powder in 1990 is sold nation-
wide in the larger cardboard packages for around
$2.85 per pound. A better buy for multi-year
storage is the instant non-fat milk powder sold
by Preparedness Products. This Mormon-owned
firm’s 1990 FOB price is $57.95 for a case of 6
nitrogen-packed cans, containing a total of 22.5
pounds. The author bought a case three years
ago and found this non-fat instant milk powder
to be excellent. At $2.58 a pound, plus UPS
shipping charges, the cost is considerably less

$210 to $550

than for comparable milk powder packaged for
multi-year storage and sold by other companies.

* V egetable oil, sugar, salt, and multi-vitamin
tablets are best bought at discount supermarkets.
In cities such stores often sell large plastic
containers of vegetable oil as “loss leaders” to
attract customers, at prices as low as wholesale.
Vegetable oil prices in small communities typi-
cally are much higher. For an economical sur-
vival ration, buy the lowest priced vegetable oil.
Remember that one of the worst post-attack
nutritional deficiencies will result from chronic
shortages of fats (including oils), and that babies
and little children cannot survive for a year on a
diet of only grains and beans, with no oil or fat.
See the Food chapter.

• CAUTIONS: Typical health food stores and
most firms that specialize in survival foods sell
basic foods at high prices, especially grains,
beans, and milk powder. Investigate several
other sources before buying.

To make sure that an advertised “one year
supply” of survival foods actually will keep an
adult well nourished for a whole year, require
the seller to inform you by mail what his “one
year supply” provides a typical adult male in:
(1) calories, k cal; (2) protein, g; and (3) fat, g.
Then you can use the values in the “Emergency
Recommendations” column in Table 9.1 on page
84 to determine whether the advertised “one
year supply” is adequate.

• Transitional foods: The emotional shock of
suddenly being forced by war to occupy your
shelter will be even worse if you have to adapt
suddenly to an unaccustomed diet. It would be a
good idea to occasionally practice eating only
your survival rations for a day or two, and to
store in your shelter a two week supply of
canned and dry foods similar to those your
family normally eats. Then it will be easier if
war forces you to make the changeover. Of
course the transitional foods that you store
should be rotated and replaced as needed, de-
pending on their shelf lives.

• A hand-cranked grain mill: Whole kernel
grains and soybeans must be processed into
meal or flour for satisfactory use as principal
components of a diet. If unprepared America
suffers a nuclear attack, unplanned, local food
reserves and/or famine relief shipments will
consist mostly of unprocessed wheat, corn, and
soybeans. Then a family with a manual grain
mill will have a survival advantage and will be
a neighborhood asset.

Many health food stores at least have sources
of hand-cranked grain mills. Mills with steel
grinding plates are more efficient and less
expensive than “stone” mills. A mail order firm
that still sells hand-cranked grain mills of a
make that the author has bought and found to be
well made and efficient is Moses Kountry Health
Foods, 7115 W. 4th N.W., Albuquerque, New
Mexico 87107. It sells a serviceable Polish mill
(Model “OB" Hand Grain Mill) for $35.73 FOB,
plus UPS shipping charges. This mill cranks
easily and grinds wheat into coarse meal or fine
flour more efficiently than any of the American
manual grain mills that the author has bought
and used over the decades. Apparently manual
grain mills no longer are manufactured in the
U.S. Before buying a grain mill be sure to learn
whether it grinds corn, our largest food reserve.
In 1987 the author bought ah advertised West
German mill. Only after receiving it by mail
order did he learn by reading the accompanying
directions that it is not made for grinding corn.

COOKING AND HEATING

• Safety precautions: The first rule for safe
cooking and/or heating in a shelter is to do it as
near as practical to the exhaust opening. If the
fire is under an exhaust pipe, install a hood over
the fire. Operate the shelter ventilating pump
when cooking, unless a natural airflow out
through the exhaust opening can be observed or
felt. Keep flammable materials, especially cloth-
ing, well away from any open fire.

• Hazardous fuels: Charcoal is the most haz-
ardous fuel to bum in confined spaces, because
it gives off much carbon monoxide. In a crowded
shelter there are obvious dangers in using the
efficient little stoves carried by backpackers
and in storing their easily vaporized and ignited
fuels.

• “Canned heat”: These convenient fuels are
expensive. Sterno, widely used to heat small
quantities of food and drink, typically retails in
7-ounce cans for what amounts to about $9.00
per pound.

• Wood: The safest fuel to burn in a shelter is
wood, the most widely available and cheapest
fuel. Furthermore, wood smoke is irritating
enough to usually alert shelter occupants to
sometimes accompanying carbon monoxide
dangers. Scrap lumber cut into short lengths,
made into bundles and stored in plastic bags,
occupies minimum space and stays dry. Keep a
saw and a hatchet in your shelter.

• Bucket Stove: The most efficient, practical
and safe stove with which to cook or heat for
weeks or months in a family shelter is a Bucket
Stove, that burns either small pieces of wood or
small “sticks” of twisted newspaper. (See the
Food chapter.) Especially if you believe that
you may have to live in your shelter for months
or that your normal fuel will not be available
after a nuclear attack, you should make and
store at least two Bucket Stoves.

• An improved Fireless Cooker: To save a
great deal of fuel and time, particularly with
slow-cooking grains and beans, make a very
well insulated Fireless Cooker similar to the
expedient one described on page 82 of the Food
chapter. Make a plywood box, first measuring
carefully to insure that, when completely lined
with 4 inches of styrofoam, the styrofoam will
fit closely around a large, lidded pot wrapped in
a bath towel. An excellent Fireless Cooker is a
war survival asset that also is useful for peace-
time cooking.

(To boil about twice as much wheat flour-
meal in a given pot as can be boiled when
making wheat mush, and to use the minimum
amount of water and fuel, salt a batch of the
flour-meal, add enough water while working it
to make a stiff dough, then make dough balls
about lVz inches in diameter, and roll them in
flour-meal. Drop the wheat balls into enough
boiling water to cover them, and boil at a rolling
boil for 10 minutes. Then put the boiling- hot pot
in a well insulated Fireless Cooker for several
hours. Corn balls can be made and boiled in this

manner, also without the almost constant stir-
ring required when boiling a mush made of
home-ground flour-meal.)

• A sturdy work bench: In the corner under the
emergency exit build a work bench, secured to a
wall, on which to cook and to which you can
attach your grain mill. A bench 36 inches high,
42 inches wide, and 30 inches deep will serve.
(The other corner at the air-exhaust end of the
shelter should be the curtained-off toilet and
bathing area.)

• Very warm clothing, footwear, and bedding:
Heating a well ventilated shelter usually is
unnecessary even .in freezing weather if the
occupants have these essentials for living in the
cold, or if they have the materials needed to
make at least as good expedient means for
retaining body heat as are described in Chapter
15. The author has felt the warm hands of little
Chinese children wearing padded clothing while
living in their below freezing homes, where
there was scarcely enough straw, grass, and
twigs to cook with. If you store plenty of strong
thread and large needles in your shelter, you
can make warm clothing out of blankets — as
some frontier settlers did to survive the sub-
zero winters of Montana.

LIGHT

• White paint: To make a little light go a long
way, paint the walls, ceiling, floor, and fur-
nishings pure white.

• Candles: The most dependable and economi-
cal lights for a family shelter are long-burning
candles. The best candle tested by the author is
the 15-hour candle manufactured by the Reed
Candle Company of San Antonio, Texas and
sold by the millions in New Mexico each
Christmas season for use in outdoor decorative
“luminarias”. This votive-type, short candle is
not perfumed and has a wick supported by a
small piece of metal attached to its base, so that
the wick remains upright and continues to burn
if the wax melts and no longer supports it. If
burned in one of the candle-lamps described
below, this candle gives enough light to read by
for 15 hours.

The author has been able to find only one
mail order source of 15-hour candles like those
sold by the millions in New Mexico: Prepared-
ness Products, 3855 South 500 West, Salt Lake
City, Utah 84115. A case of 144 candles sells for
S49.00. FOB in 1990. When UPS shipping charges
are added, the delivered cost is between 35 and 40
cents for each 15-hour candle, depending on the
distance shipped.

Persons who stock a permanent shelter
should realize that after a nuclear war fats, oils,
paraffin, and all other sources of light will be in
extremely short supply for at least many
months. Light at a delivered cost of about two
cents per hour will be a bargain blessing.

* The second-best shelter candle tested by
the author is a standard Plumber’s Candle, that
retails for about 60 cents in many stores nation-
wide, and that burns for about 10 hours with a
brighter flame than a votive-type candle.

Two types of expedient candle-lamps were
proved by multi-day tests to be the most prac-
tical:

* The best expedient candle-lamp is made of
a 1-pint Mason jar, identical to the cooking-oil
lamp pictured on page 102 of the Light chapter
except for the substitution of a short candle for
the oil and wick. To make a stable candle base
on a glass jar’s rounded bottom, cover it with
hot candle wax. To be able to light the candle
and then put it inside the glass jar, make tongs
out of an 18-inch length of coathanger wire bent
in the middle, with each of its two ends bent
inward 90 degrees and cut off to make 1/4-inch-
long candle grippers.

* The second-best candle-
lamp is made by cutting a
standard aluminum pop or
beer can, as illustrated. U se
a sharp small knife. To
make a stable base for a
short candle, put enough
sand across the can’s round-
ed bottom to barely cover
its center. The first candle
burned will saturate and
then harden the sand, mak-
ing a permanent candle
base or holder.

Caution: Although candles are the safest
non-electric lights for shelter use, they produce
enough carbon monoxide to cause headaches in
a poorly ventilated, long-occupied shelter. In a
2-week habitability test of a family shelter in
Princeton, the father and mother did not smoke,
yet they had persistent headaches. Specialists
later concluded that their headaches were caused
by the small amounts of carbon monoxide pro-
duced by the candles used both for light and to
heat food and drink.

• Expedient lamps: The very economical lamp
that burns cooking oil in a 1 -pint glass j ar is the

better of the two expedient lamps pictured on
page 102. For use in a shelter, however, long-
burning candles, that are serviceable after
decades of storage, are more practical. Among
the disadvantages of expedient lamps is the fact
that untreated, soft cotton string needed to make
excellent wicks is no longer available in some
communities, and making wire- stiffened wicks
is a time consuming chore.

• Other light sources: See the Light chapter.
NYLON HAMMOCK-CHAIRS

To enable the maximum number of addi-
tional people to occupy a shelter for days to
months, nylon Hammock-Chairs should be made
before a war crisis arises, and should be kept
stored for emergency use. The best field-tested
model for use in shelters that are at least 7 feet
wide is similar to the expedient Hammock-
Chair described on pages 120 through 124, is
made of strong nylon cloth, and is 40 inches
wide by 9 feet long along its center line, with
each of its long sides being 8 feet-4 inches long.
At each end is a curved hem 3'/2 inches wide,
through which a loop-ended nylon hammock
rope is run, to draw the slung hammock into a
boat-like, secure shape with adequate head and
shoulder room. The breaking strength of a
hammock rope should be at least 600 pounds.

To attach the nylon ropes that support the
suspended chair’s two “arms,” a loop of nylon
webbing, or of folded and stitched nylon cloth,
should be sewn to each side edge of the hammock
52 inches from the end of the hammock that will
serve as the top of the back of the chair. See the
illustrations on page 124. Especially in per-
manent family shelters, support points both for
the hammocks, and for the hammocks when
they are converted into suspended chairs, should
be made when the shelter is being built.

OFTEN OVERLOOKED SANITATION
AND OTHER SHELTER NEEDS

Store enough soap to last your family for at
least a year. After a major nuclear attack the
edible fats and oils, used in past generations to
make soap, will almost all be eaten. Production
of detergents is based on inter-dependent, vul-
nerable chemical industries not likely to be
restored for years.

A chemical toilet would help bridge the gap
between modern living and surviving in a
crowded shelter. For months-long occupancy,
however, a more practical toilet is likely to be a
5-gallon can with a seat, a plastic trash bag for
its removable liner, a piece of plastic film for its
tie-on cover, and a hose to vent gasses to the
outdoors. See page 104. Store at least 200 large
plastic trash bags.

The author knows from his experiences in
primitive regions that using anything other
than paper in place of toilet paper or cloth is
hard to get accustomed to. A hundred pounds of
newspaper, stored in plastic trash bags to pre-
vent it from getting damp, takes up only about 3
cubic feet of storage space and would be useful
for many purposes.

Keep several thousand matches, in Mason
jars, so that they will be sure to stay dry even if
your shelter becomes very humid post-attack.

Store most of your radiation monitoring
instruments in your shelter, along with paper
and pencils with which to keep records of
radiation exposures, etc. A steel or reinforced
concrete shelter should have a transistor radio
with extra batteries, and a vertical pipe through
which an antenna can be run up to improve
reception.

No one can remember all the needed sur-
vival facts and instructions given even in this
one book, so keep Nuclear War Survival Skills and
other survival guidance in your shelter, and
also other books that you believe may improve
your family's morale and survival chances.

PRACTICE SHELTER LIVING

A family that spends a weekend living in its
completed small shelter will learn more about
unrecognized shelter needs — and more about
each other — than members are likely to learn if
they all read civil defense information for two
whole days. Furthermore, after this educational
experience family members old enough to have
nuclear fears will know for sure that anti-
defense activists are talking nonsense when
they maintain that if most Americans had shel-
ters they would become less heedful of nuclear
war dangers and more likely to support aggres-
sive leaders.

Chapter 18

Trans-Pacific Fallout

POTENTIAL DANGERS TO AMERICANS

Many strategists believe that if a nuclear
war is fought in the next few decades it probably
will not involve nuclear explosions on any of
our 50 states. Perhaps the first nuclear war
casualties in the United States will be caused by
fallout from an overseas nuclear war in which
our country is not a belligerent. As the number
of nations with nuclear weapons increases —
especially in the Middle East — this generally
unrecognized danger to Americans will worsen.
Trans-Pacific war fallout, carried to an America

at peace by the prevailing west-to-east winds
that blow around the world, could be several
hundred times more dangerous to Americans
than fallout from the worst possible overseas
nuclear power reactor accident, and many times
more dangerous than fallout from a very im-
probable U.S. nuclear power reactor accident as
lethal as the disastrous Chernobyl accident was
to Russians.

Fig. 1 is a map showing fallout from a
single above ground Chinese nuclear test ex-
plosion (“a few hundred kilotons”) on December

ORNL DWG. 73-461 1

Fig. 1. The Fifth Chinese Nuclear Test was Detonated on Dec. 28, 1966. It “involved thermonuclear material," and,
according to the AEC press release, was a "nuclear test in the atmosphere at their test site near Lop Nor.” As indicated
above, by the end of Dec. 31, 1966 the leading edge of its fallout cloud extended as far east as the dotted line shown
running from Arizona to the Great Lakes.

28, 1966. It produced fallout that by January 1,
1967 resulted in the fallout cloud covering most
of the United States. This one Chinese explosion
produced about 15 million curies of iodine- 131
— roughly the same amount as the total release
of iodine- 131 into the atmosphere from the
Chernobyl nuclear power plant disaster. (The
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory’s pre-
liminary estimate is that 10-50 million curies of
iodine- 131 were released during the several
days of the Chernobyl disaster; in contrast, its
estimate of the iodine-131 released during the
Three Mile Island nuclear power plant accident,
the worst commercial nuclear power plant ac-
cident in American history, is about 20 curies.)

Fig. 1 is from an Oak Ridge National Labora-
tory report, Trans- Pacific Fallout and Protective
Countermeasures (ORNL-4900), written by the
author of this book in 1970, but not published
until 1973. No classified information was used
in any version of this report, that summarized
findings of the unclassified Trans-Pacific Fall-
out Seminar funded by the U.S. Atomic Energy
Commission. This seminar was attended by
experts who came from several research organi-
zations and deliberated at Oak Ridge National
Laboratory for two days in March of 1970.

Later in 1970 a final draft of this report was
submitted to Washington for approval before
publication. It was promptly classified. Publi-
cation without censorship was not permitted
until after it was declassified in its entirety in
1973. None of the recommendations in this
pioneering report were acted upon, but many of
them are given in this chapter.

The findings and conclusions of the above
mentioned 1970 Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Trans-Pacific Fallout Seminar, summarized in
the 1973 report, were confirmed by a later, more
comprehensive study, Assessment and Control of
the Transoceanic Fallout Threat, by H. Lee and W. E.
Strope (1974; 117 pages). Report EGU 2981 of
Stanford Research Institute.

Fallout from the approximately 300 kiloton
Chinese test explosion shown in Fig. 1 caused
milk from cows that fed on pastures near Oak
Ridge, Tennessee and elsewhere to be contami-
nated with radioiodine, although not with enough
to be hazardous to health. However, this milk
contamination (up to 900 picocuries of radio-
active iodine per liter) and the measured dose
rates from the gamma rays emitted from fallout
particles deposited in different parts of the
United States indicate that trans-Pacific fallout
from even an overseas nuclear war in which
“only” two or three hundred megatons would be
exploded could result in tens of thousands of
unprepared Americans suffering thyroid injury.

Unprepared Americans do not have potassium
iodide, the very effective prophylactic medica-
tion to prevent thyroid injury from radioiodine,
and few could get it during the several days that
it would take trans-Pacific war fallout to reach
the United States. Fortunately, removal of even
a cancerous thyroid rarely is fatal to people
blessed with modem medical facilities.

Only about 7,500 Americans (people living
within a few miles of a nuclear power plant in
Tennessee) have been given prophylactic po-
tassium iodide to keep in their homes. No
government organization has advised even
Americans living near other nuclear facilities
to buy and keep any kind of prophylactic medi-
cine to protect their thyroids in case of a peace-
time nuclear accident. As expected, official
warnings and advice to the public continue not
even to mention preparations that individual
Americans could make to protect themselves
and their families against thyroid injury either
from trans-Pacific war fallout deposited on an
America at peace, or as a result of war fallout if
our country is subjected to a nuclear attack.

The worst danger to Americans from trans-
pacific fallout from a large nuclear war would
be the whole-body gamma radiation doses that
millions would receive from fallout particles
deposited on the ground, on streets, on and in
buildings. Protective countermeasures would
include both sheltering some pregnant women
and small children living in “hot spot” areas of
abnormally high rain-out of fallout, and evacu-
ating others. Unless such unavoidably time-
consuming and expensive countermeasures
were taken, several thousand additional Ameri-
cans might die from cancer in the following 20
or 30 years. The largest total doses would be
received by people who would live normal
unsheltered lives for the first month or so after
fallout deposition, while the dose rates would be
highest.

Several thousand additional cancer deaths
would be extremely difficult to detect, if caused
by whole-body gamma radiation from fallout
deposited nationwide, with these scattered
deaths occurring over the 20 or 30 years follow-
ing a trans-Pacific war fallout disaster. For
during these same decades about 15 million
Americans normally would die from cancers
indistinguishable from those caused by whole-
body radiation from war fallout deposited on an
America at peace.

An authoritative risk estimate of getting
cancer from low doses of radiation is given in
Report No. 77 (March 15, 1984) of the National
Coundil on Radiation Protection and Measure-
ment, “Exposures from the Uranium Series

with Emphasis on Radon and Its Daughters":
“The low dose model for total excess
cancer mortality is one hundred cases
per million people exposed to one rem
uniform whole body radiation. This
would make the overall risk of cancer to
the average individual in the population
about one in ten thousand per rem, i.e., if
ten thousand persons are exposed to a
dose of one rem (one thousand mrem),
one excess [fatal] cancer would be ex-
pected within the lifetime of the group.”

Many radiation specialists have concluded
from studies of the effects of extremely low
doses that the above and similar conservative
estimates of excess cancer deaths overestimate
the number of fatalities likely to result from low
radiation doses, such as would be received by
millions of Americans from trans-Pacific war
fallout.

TO PROTECT YOURSELF AGAINST
TRANS-PACIFIC FALLOUT, START BY
REALIZING THAT:

• The dangers from trans-Pacific war fallout
have been increased by the continuing trend
toward deployment of more accurate, smaller,
more numerous nuclear weapons, because:

* A large nuclear explosion (half a mega-
ton, or more) injects most of its fallout particles
and gases into the stratosphere, above the tops
of clouds and above the altitudes at which quite
prompt removal of contaminants from the at-
mosphere by scavenging takes place. Very
small particles in the stratosphere do not reach
the ground before they are blown at least several
thousand miles. Most of these tiny particles
remain airborne for weeks to years, are very
widely dispersed, and are blown around the
world several to many times before being de-
posited. By then the radioactivity of iodine-131
(that has a half life of only a little more than 8
days) is so greatly reduced that it is not nearly
as dangerous as is radioactive iodine deposited
much sooner with the fallout from smaller
weapons of several hundred kilotons, or less,
explosive power.

* Nuclear explosions smaller than about
half a megaton (500 kilotons) inject all or most
of their fallout to lower altitudes — within the
troposphere, below the stratosphere. Most of
such fallout is deposited during the radioactive
cloud’s first world-circling trip, when even quite
rapidly decaying radioiodine still is dangerous-
ly radioactive. This greater danger from smaller
nuclear weapons has been proved by numerous
measurements of fallout from many nuclear
test explosions, both foreign and American.

• The dangers from trans-Pacific fallout pro-
duced by peacetime nuclear accidents are not
nearly as serious as many Americans have
been led to believe. For example, the Chernobyl
nuclear power reactor accident injected as much
radioactive iodine into the atmosphere as would
the explosions of several kiloton-range nuclear
weapons totaling perhaps as much as half a
megaton in explosive power. But not nearly as
much of the radioactivity caused by this reactor
accident reached the United States as would
reach us from several nuclear explosions in the
same area, capable of injecting an equal amount
of radioactivity into the atmosphere, because:

* The cloud from the steam explosion that
blew off the roof and otherwise damaged the
Chernobyl reactor building, may have risen
quite soon to 20,000 feet or more and was
partially blown eastward clear across Asia and
the Pacific Ocean. However, the top of the
radioactive smoke cloud over the Chernobyl
power plant, that burned for days, rose only
about 3,000 feet above the ground. As a result,
much of the airborne Chernobyl radiation stayed
at relatively low altitudes where scavenging
(removal) of smoke and fallout particles and
gasses is most effective and rapid, due to aggre-
gation on cloud droplets, rain-out, and dry
deposition. In contrast, almost all of the fallout
particles and radioactive gasses from a nuclear
explosion are injected much higher, to altitudes
where scavenging is less effective; there, the
generally prevailing west-to-east winds prompt-
ly start transporting very small particles and
radioactive gasses (that originate in the mid-
latitudes of the northern hemisphere) around
the world.

* Variable winds for days carried much of
the Chernobyl radioactive material northward
to Scandanavian countries, then westward and
southward to other European countries. The
resultant wide dispersal of this fallout allowed
time for both scavenging and radioactive decay
before a small fraction of these invisible radio-
active clouds rose and also were blown eastward
by the prevailing high-altitude winds. These
west winds carried an extremely small fraction
of the radioactive emissions from the burning
Chernobyl plant clear across Asia and the
Pacific to America.

• The media habitually exaggerate dangers
from nuclear accidents, and exploited the Cher-
nobyl disaster. For example, when Dr. Robert
Gale, the leading bone marrow transplant spe-
cialist who helped save a few Chernobyl victims,
first returned from Russia, an Associated Press
article quoted him as saying: “I think we can
say there are at least 50,000 to 100,000 people

who have had some dose of radiation which
might be of long-term concern. There will,
unfortunately, be additional casualties. We hope
the number will be small.” The Rocky Mountain
News headlined "100,000 SOVIETS TO SUFFER
FROM RADIATION, DOCTOR SAYS”. Mary
McGrory, the syndicated liberal columnist, also
misinterpreted Dr. Gale's risk estimate and
misinformed her readers by writing: “He [Dr.
Gale] estimated that there could be 100,000 cases
of radiation sickness . . .”. Such dramatic news
items give the impression that 100,000 Russians
— not just a small fraction of that number — are
likely to suffer sickness or death from the
Chernobyl radiation. So additional typical Amer-
icans, reading misinformation of this type and
knowing very little about statistical evaluations
of risks based on probabilities, have had their
worst nuclear fears strengthened.

The public’s exaggerated fears of extremely
small amounts of. radiation also are worsened
by the media's use without explanations of very
small units of radiation measurement, including
the picocurie. (The picocurie is used to express
the radioactive contamination of milk, water,
etc., and is only one millionth of a millionth
[1/1,000,000.000,000] of a curie.) One episode in
which fears of radiation were thus worsened
occurred shortly after the invisible fallout cloud
from the Chernobyl disaster first reached the
United States. Some listeners were' frightened
when a radio announcer merely stated that milk
samples in northwest Oregon showed 118 pico-
curies per liter of radioactive iodine. Few Ameri-
cans know that they will not be advised to stop
using fresh milk unless its contamination is
15.000 picocuries or more per liter — as specified
in the Food and Drug Administration’s official,
very cautious “Protective Action Guidance",
published in the Federal Register of October 22,
1982.

The maximum measured radioactive con-
tamination of milk in the United States by
iodine- 131 from the Chernobyl disaster was in
milk produced by cows grazing on pasture in
Washington: 560 picocuries per liter. The much
greater potential danger from trans-Pacific war
fallout is brought out by the fact that the approx-
imately 300-kiloton Chinese test explosion of
December 28, 1966 resulted in worse iodine-131
contamination of milk produced by a cow
grazing on pasture near Oak Ridge, Tennessee:
900 picocuries per liter. Even a small overseas
nuclear war with only 20 or so kiloton-range
nuclear explosions could cause high enough
contamination of milk to result in the Govern-
ment’s warning Americans to refrain from using
fresh milk. Most Americans would heed this
warning and would not drink or otherwise use
fresh milk for weeks. In addition, a small over-
seas nuclear war possibly would cause a few
American casualties years to decades later.

TWO SUMMARY CONCLUSIONS

1. Trans-Pacific war fallout deposited on an
America at peace surely would be a disaster, but
not an overwhelming one. The economic and
psychological impact probably would be more
damaging than the losses of health and life.

2. Prudent individuals should make prepara-
tions to enable them to use the low cost protec-
tive countermeasures described in this book,
especially those in Chapter 13. Some of the most
effective countermeasures, such as getting
enough prophylactic potassium iodide to pre-
vent thyroid damage even if war fallout dangers
from explosions in the United States or overseas
were to continue for a couple of months, cannot
be accomplished after even an overseas nuclear
war begins.

Appendix A

Instructions for Six Expedient Fallout Shelters

SHELTER-BUILDING INSTRUCTIONS

The following step-by-step instructions for
building 6 types of earth-covered expedient shelters
have enabled untrained families to build even the
most difficult of these shelters in less than 2 days. The
only families who took longer up to 4 days were
the few who were delayed by very heavy rains. Each
of these shelters has been built by several different
families or groups of families. Only widely available
materials and hand tools are required. They have
been built under simulated crisis conditions in
environments typical of large regions of the United
States: covered-trench types have been built in
forested clay hills of Tennessee, in a bare Colorado
valley in snowy November, in an irrigated Utah valley
in hot August. Most of the aboveground shelters were
built by families in Florida, w'here the water table is
within 18 inches of the surface.

AH of these test families used instructions that
contained general guidance to help inexperienced
persons build almost any type of earth-covered
shelter. In this appendix, general instructions which
appK to all types of shelters will be given first, to
avoid repetition. (However, if the instructions for
building one type of shelter are reproduced
separately, the pertinent parts of these general
instructions should be given before the step-by-step
instructions for building that shelter.

WARNING

Earth-covered shelters built of green poles
can become unsafe within a few months, because
of fungi and/or boring insects. In damper parts
of the U.S., earth-covered shelters built of dry
poles or untreated lumber can become unsafe
after several months. An exception is very dry
areas of the West, where some pioneers lived for
years in earth-covered dugouts with pole roofs.

GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS FOR BUILDING
AN EXPEDIENT SHELTER

1 . Read all the instructions and study the drawings
before beginning work. (Most families have
found it helpful first to read the instructions
aloud and then to discuss problems and work
assignments.)

2. Sharpen all tools, including picks and shovels.
Dull tools waste time and energy. If no file is
available, tools can be sharpened by rubbing
them hard on concrete or a rough stone.

3. Wear gloves from the start. Blisters can lead to
serious infections, especially if antibiotics cannot
be obtained.-

4. Whenever practical, select a building site that:

• Will not be flooded if heavy rains occur or if
a large dam farther up a major valley is destroyed
by a nuclear explosion.

• Is in the open and at least 50 ft away from a
building or woods that might be set afire by the
thermal pulse from an explosion tens of miles
away. ( Keep well away from even a lone tree; it is
hard to dig through roots.)

• Has earth that is firm and stable, if the
planned shelter is to be a trench type with
unshored (unsupported) earth walls. To make
sure that the earth is firm and stable enough so
that the walls will not cave in, make a “thumb-
test” by digging an 18-in. -deep hole and trying to
push your bare thumb into the undisturbed earth
at the bottom. If you can push your thumb no
farther than I in., the earth should be safe
enough. If the earth does not pass the thumb-test,
move to another location and repeat the test. Or
build a belowground shelter with shored walls,
or an aboveground shelter.

• Has a sufficient depth of earth above rock or
the w ater table for a trenchto be dug to the depth

required. (To find out, try to dig a pit to the
required depth before excavating the whole
trench. Or, if you are quite sure there is no water-
table problem, try driving down a sharpened rod
or pipe to the required depth in several places
along the planned length of the trench.)

5. If the shelter must be built on sloping ground,
locate it with its length crosswise to the direction
of the slope.

6. Before staking out the shelter, clear the ground of
brush, weeds and tall grass over an area
extending about 10 ft beyond the planned edges
of the excavation. (If loose earth is shoveled onto
tall plants, the earth will be difficult to shovel the
second time when covering the completed shelter
roof.)

7. Stake out the complete shelter, and then dig by
removing layers of earth.

8. When digging earth that is too firm to shovel
without first breaking it up, start picking (or
breaking with a shovel) in a line across the center
of the trench. Next, shovel out a narrow trench 6
or 8 in. deep all the way across the width of the
trench. Then with pick or shovel break off row
after row of earth all the way across the width of
the trench, as illustrated.

OftNL-OWG

9. When digging a trench, to avoid having to move
the excavated earth twice more to get it out of the
way, first pile all earth about 8 ft away from the
trench. Later, pile additional earth you are
excavating at least 3 ft away.

10. Never risk a cave-in by digging into lower parts of
an earth wall. It is dangerous to produce even a
small overhanging section of wall or to dig a
small, cave-like enlargement of a shelter.

11. When making a “sandbag” of a pillowcase or
sack to hold earth shielding in place around the
sides of shelter openings or along the edges of a

shelter roof, fill it so that it will be only about
two-thirds full after its opening is tied shut
securely. Avoid dropping the sandbag.

12. If sufficient sandbags are not available, make
earth-filled “rolls.” Bed sheets or any reasonably
strong fabric or plastic film can be used to make
these rolls as described below. (To make a longer
roll than the one illustrated below, several
persons should make one together, standing side-
by-side.)

To make an 8-in.-high earth-filled roll:

(1) Select a piece of cloth at least as strong as a
new bed sheet, 2 ft longer than the side of the
opening to be protected, and 5 ft wide.

(2) - Place 2 ft of the width of the cloth on the

ground, as illustrated.

ORNL-DWG 78-16213

(3) While using both hands to hold up and pull
on 3 ft of the width of the cloth and pressing
against the cloth with your body, have
another person shovel earth onto and against
the cloth.

(4) While still pulling on the cloth, pull the upper
part down over the earth that covers the
lower part of the cloth.

(5) Cover the upper part of the cloth with earth
so as to form an earth-filled “hook” near the
upper edge, as illustrated.

ORNL-DWG 78-16214

SLOPE EARTH TO DRAIN

(6) If a greater thickness of rolls is needed, level
the earth on top of a roll; then make anotner
earth-filled roll on this level surface.

13. Cut and haul poles and logs more easily by doing

the following:

(1) Take time to sharpen your tools before
starting to work —no matter how rushed you
feel.

(2) When sawing green trees that have gummy
resin or sap, oil your saw with kerosene or
diesel fuel. If you don’t have these, use motor
oil. grease, or even soap.

(3) When felling a small tree, the following
method will help make a square cut, keep
your saw from being pinched, and help make
the tree fall in the desired direction: (a) Saw
the tree about one-third through on the side
toward which you want it to fall, (b) Then
start sawing the opposite side, while another
person pushes on the tree with a 10-ft push-
pole, pressing the end of the. push-pole
against the tree about 10 ft above the ground.
A push-pole with a forked end —or with a big
nail on the end — is best.

(4) After a tree has been felled, trim off all limbs
and knots so that the pole or log is smooth
and will require no additional smoothing

ORNL-DWG 78-16210

LIMB CUT OFF. TO HOOK OVER THE SQUARE CUT END OF THE POLE.

when you get ready to move it, or to use it for
building your shelter. Make and use a
measuring stick to speed up measuring and
cutting poles and logs to the right lengths.

(5) It usually is best first to cut the poles exactly
two or three times the final length of the poles
to be used in the shelter.

(6) When you are ready to move the poles to the
shelter site, drag them rather than trying to
carry them on your shoulders. Shouldering
them is more tiring, and you could injure
yourself severely if you should trip.

To drag a log or several poles by hand: (a) Cut a
stick 2 to 2'k in. in diameter and about 3 '/3 ft long;(b)
Tie a short piece of %-in. (or stronger) rope to the
center of the stick; (c) Make a lasso-like loop at the
free end of the rope, so that when it is looped around
the log and two people are pulling (see illustration),
the front end of the log is raised about 6 in. above the
ground. The loop should be tightened around the log
about 2 ft. from its end, so that the end of the log
cannot hit the backs of the legs of the two people
pulling it.

ORNL-DWG 78-16211

CAUTION: If you drag a log down a steep hill, one
person should tie a rope to the rear end of the log, and
then follow the dragger, ready to act as the brake if
needed.

(7) When you get the poles or logs to the location
where you will build the shelter, cut them to
the desired minimum diameters and specified
lengths, and put all those of one specified

type together. Be sure that the diameter of the
small end of each pole of one type is at least as
large as the minimum diameter specified for
its type. Make and use a measuring stick, as
previously described.

14. Use snow for shielding material for aboveground
shelters if the earth is so deep-frozen that digging
is impractical. For a Ridge-Pole Shelter (see
Appendix A. 5), cover the entire shelter with 5 ft
of wetted or well-packed snow. For a Crib-
Walled Shelter (see Appendix A. 6), Fill the cribs
and then cover and surround the entire shelter
with snow at least 5 ft thick. With wetted or well-
packed snow 5 ft thick, the protection factor is
about 50. Families have completed these winter
shelters within 2 days.

Several hundred pounds of snow can be
moved at a time by sledding it on a piece of
canvas or other strong material 6 to 8 ft wide.
Attach a stick across one end of the material and
tie a rope to the ends of the stick, so as to form a
“Y” bridle on which a person can pull.

To keep the occupants of a snow-covered
expedient shelter dry and tolerably warm in sub-
freezing weather, provide sufficient ventilation
openings to maintain inside temperatures at a
few degrees below freezing. (See Chapter 14,
Expedient Clothing.)

1 5. Make a reliable canopy over the shelter entry. By
following the instructions given in Fig. A on the
following page, you can make a dependable

canopy that ordinary winds will neither tear nor
blow down and that will not catch
rainwater — even if you have no waterproof
material stronger than 4-mil polyethylene film.

16. Take to your shelter enough window screen or
mosquito netting to cover its openings. Except in
freezing-cold weather, flies and mosquitoes
would soon become a problem in most localities
soon after an attack.

17. Work to complete (1) an expedient ventilating-
cooling pump (a KAP) and (2) the storage of at
least 15 gallons of water per person. This work
should be accomplished by the time your shelter
is completed. Especially in an area of heavy
fallout during warm or hot weather, an earth-
covered, high-protection-factor shelter when full
of people would be useless unless adequately
ventilated and cooled and provided with enough
water.

18. In cold weather, restrict air flow through the
shelter by hanging curtains of plastic or tightly
woven fabric, or by otherwise partially
obstructing its two openings. Always be sure to
leave at least a few square inches open at the floor
level of one opening and at the ceiling height of
the other, to provide enough ventilation to
prevent a harmful concentration of exhaled
carbon dioxide. To prevent exhaled water vapor
from wetting clothing and bedding and reducing
its insulating value, keep the ventilation openings
as wide open as possible without causing shelter
temperatures to be intolerably cold.

Appendix A.l

Door-Covered Trench Shelter

(See illustration at the end of Appendix A.l)

PROTECTION PROVIDED

Against fallout radiation: Protection Factor 250
(PF 250) -a person in the open outside this shelter
would receive 250 times as much fallout radiation as
he would if inside.

Against blast: Better protection than most
homes, if built in very stable earth. Blast tests have
indicated that this shelter would be undamaged up to
at least the 5-psi overpressure range from large
explosions. Without blast doors, the shelter’s
occupants could be injured at this overpressure
range, although probably not fatally.

Against fire: Excellent, if sufficiently distant from
fires producing carbon monoxide and toxic smoke.

WHERE PRACTICAL

In a location where at least one hollow-core
door per occupant is available, and where the
earth is very stable and a dry hole or trench 4Vz
feet deep can be dug without difficulty. (A
family evacuating in a pickup truck or large
station wagon can carry enough doors, with
doorknobs removed. Strong boards at least 6
feet long and at least one full inch thick, or
plywood at least %-inch thick, also can be used
to roof this 36-inch-wide trench and to support
its overhead earth shielding.)

Warning: Some doors with single-thickness
panels if loaded with earth will break before
they bend enough to result in protective earth
arching.

FOR WHOM PRACTICAL

For a typical family or other group with two
or more members able to work hard for most of
36 hours. (Stronger-than-average families with
most members able to work hard have com-
pleted this type of shelter is less than 24 hours
after receiving step-by-step, well illustrated
instructions.)

CAPACITY

The shelter illustrated is roofed with 3 doors and is
the minimum length for 3 persons. (If you have
additional doors, or boards and sticks at least 3 ft long,
make the entryway trenches 3 or 4 ft longer than
illustrated — if not pressed for time.)

For each additional person, add an additional
door. (If more than about 7 persons are to be sheltered,
build two or more separate shelters.)

BUILDING INSTRUCTIONS

1. Before beginning work, study the drawings and
read ALL of the following instructions.

2. Divide the work; CHECK OFF EACH STEP
WHEN COMPLETED.

3. By the time the shelter is finished, plan to have
completed (1) a ventilating pump (a KAP 16 in.
wide and 28 in. high), essential for this shelter
except in cool weather, and (2) the storage of at
least 1 5 gallons of water per occupant (see Appendix
B and Chapter 8).

4. Start to assemble materials and tools that are listed
for the illustrated 3-person shelter.

A. Essential Materials and Tools for a 3-Person
Shelter

• Three hollow-core doors.

• A shovel (and a pick, if the earth is very
hard).

• Two to three square yards per person of
waterproof materials for rainproofing the
roof. Use materials such as 4-mil polyeth-
ylene film, shower curtains, plastic table-
cloths, plastic mattress covers, or canvas.

• Two pieces of plastic or tightly woven
cloth (each about 6)2 X 6)2 ft) to make
canopies over the two shelter openings. Also
sticks and cords or strips of cloth to support

the canopies — as described in Fig. A of the
introductory section of this appendix.

• Materials and tools for building a simple
shelter-ventilating pump, a KAP 16 in. wide
and 28 in. high. (See Appendix B.) Only in
cold or continuously breezy, cool weather
can tolerable temperatures and humidities be
maintained in a crowded underground
shelter without an air pump.

• Containers for storing adequate water.
(See Chapter 8.)

B. Useful Materials and Tools

• Large cans, buckets, and/or pots with
bail handles — in which to carry earth and
later to store drinking water or human
wastes.

• Two pillowcases and one bedsheet per
person — to make “sandbags” around shelter
openings and to cover trench walls. (If
available, large sheets of 4-mil polyethylene
are better than bedsheets, because they keep
earth walls damp and stable. They also help
keep shelter occupants dry and clean and
prevent earth from falling into their eyes.)

• File, knife, pliers, hammer.

• Measuring tape, yardstick, or ruler.

• Expedient life-support items.

5. To save time and work, SHARPEN ALL
TOOLS AND KEEP THEM SHARP.

6. Wear gloves from the start — even tough hands
can blister and become painful and infected after
hours of digging.

7. Check to be sure the earth is stable and firm
enough so that a trench shelter with unshored
(unsupported), vertical earth walls will be safe
from cave-ins. (Interior doors are not strong
enough to roof an earth-covered trench wider
than 3 ft.)

As a test of the stability of earth, dig a small
hole about 18 in. deep. Remove all loose earth
from the bottom of the hole. Then make a
“thumb test” by pushing your bare thumb into
the undisturbed surface at the bottom of the hole.
If you can push your thumb into the earth no
farther than one inch, the earth should be
suitable for this tvpe of shelter. If the earth does

not pass the “thumb test,” move to another
location and try the test again. Continue to
relocate and repeat until suitable earth is
found, or build a shored-trench or aboveground
shelter.

8. Prepare to dig a vertical-walled trench 4 % ft deep
and 3 ft wide. To determine the length of the
trench, add together the widths of all the doors to
be used for roofing it, then subtract 8 in. from the
sum. (To avoid arithmetical errors, it is best to
lay all the doors side by side on the ground.)

9. Clear any brush, grass, or weeds that are more
than a few inches high from the area where the
trench will be dug. Also clear the ground around
all sides of the trench, to a distance of about 8 ft
from the sides and ends of the trench.

10. Stake out a rectangular trench 36 in. wide, with
its length as determined above. Also stake out the
entrance at one end, as illustrated in Fig. A.l at
the end of Appendix A.l, and the ventilation
trench and opening at the other.

1 1. Dig the main trench, the entryway trench, and
the ventilation trench. Place the excavated earth
along both lengthwise sides of the trench,
starting at the outside edges of the cleared space.
Be sure that no earth is piled closer than 3 ft to the
sides of the trench.

12. To be sure that unstable, unsafe earth is not
encountered at depths below 18 in., repeat the
“thumb test” each time the trench is deepened an
additional foot. If the earth does not pass the test,
do not dig the trench any deeper; try another
location.

13. To keep each trench its full width as it is dug, cut
a stick 36 in. long and another 18 in. long; use
them repeatedly from the start to check the
widths of the main trench and the entry trenches.
Keeping the trenches full width will save much
work and time later.

14. Carefully level and smooth the ground to a
distance of 2'/ 2 ft from the sides of the trench, so
that the doors will lie flat on the ground up to the
edges of the trench.

15. If plenty of sheets, bedspreads, plastic, and/or
other materials are available, cover the trench
walls with them. Wall coverings should stop one
inch from the floor of the trench to prevent their
being stepped on and pulled down. Plastic wall
coverings keep some types of damp earth walls
from drying out and crumbling.

16. To be able to place an adequate thickness of
shielding earth all the way to and around the
entryway and ventilation hole, stack improvised
“sandbags” around these two openings before
placing the earth on the roof. Or use cloth or
plastic material to make “rolls” of earth, as
illustrated in the introductory section of Appen-
dix A.

17. Shovel earth around the rolls, sandbags, or other
means used to raise the level of the earth around
the two shelter openings. Slope this earth
outward, and pack it. so that rainwater on the
ground cannot run into the shelter.

18. To rainproof the shelter and to prevent the
roofing doors from being dampened and
weakened, use available waterproof materials as
follows:

a. If the earth is dry, the easiest and best way to
make a rainproof roof is to place the doors
directly on the ground, with each of the end
doors overlapping an end of the main trench
by 4 or 5 in. (Be sure again to level the ground
surface as you place each door, so that each
lies flat against the ground all the way to the
edges of the trench.) Next, mound dry earth
over the doors. First place a few inches of
earth on the doors near their ends; then
mound it about 12 in. deep above the
centerline of the trench. Slope the earth to
both sides so as to just cover the ends of the
doors. Next, smooth off the earth mound,
being careful to remove sharp stones that
might puncture rainproof materials. Then
place waterproof material over the smooth
mound, making the “buried roof shown in
Fig. A. 1. Finally, carefully mound an addi-
tional 12 to 15 in. of earth on top of the buried
roof, again placing it first over the doors near
their ends. The earth over the trench should
be at least 2 ft thick, so that effective earth
arching will support most of the weight of the
earth covering and will provide considerable
protection if struck by blast.

b. If the earth is wet, place the waterproof
material directly on top of the doors, to keep
them dry and strong. To make water run off
this waterproof covering and to keep water
from collecting on a horizontal surface and
leaking through, slope the doors toward one
side of the trench by first making one side of

the trench about 3 in. higher than the other
side. A way to raise one side — without
increasing the distance the doors must
span — is to place an earth-filled “roll” of
bedsheets or other material along one edge of
the trench. To keep the waterproof material
used to cover the doors from sliding down the
slope of the doors when earth is shoveled on,
tuck the upper edge of the material under the
higher ends of the doors. Finally, mound
earth over the doors, first placing it near their
ends. The mound should be at least 2 ft deep
above the centerline of the roof and about 3 or
4 in. deep over both ends of the doors.

If more waterproof material is available than
is required to make a buried roof (or to cover
the doors) and to make the illustrated
canopies over the two shelter openings, use
this excess material to cover the wet ground
on which the doors are placed.

19. Dig small drainage ditches around the completed
shelter, to lead runoff water away.

20. To keep rain and or sand-like fallout particles
from falling into the shelter openings, build an
open-sided canopy over each opening, as
illustrated in Fig. A. shown in the introductory
sectio.n of Appendix A.

21. Install the air pump (a K.AP) in the shelter
opening into which air is already naturally
moving.

22. If the shelter has a K.AP. protection against
radiation can be increased by placing containers
of water and of heavy foods, or bags of earth, so
as to partially block the openings. This would
still permit adequate air to be pumped through
the shelter, except in very hot weather.

23. For seats, place water and food containers,
bedding, etc., along the side of the trench that is
farther from the off-center entry trenches. If the
trench floor is damp, covering it with a
waterproof material, tree limbs, or brush will
help.

24. Fill all available water containers, including pits
which have been dug and lined with plastic, then
roofed with available materials. If possible,
disinfect all waterstored in expedient containers,
using one scant teaspoon of a chlorine bleach,
such as Clorox, for each 10 gallons of water.
Even if only muddy water is available, store it. If

you do not have a disinfectant, it may be possible
to boil water when needed.

Put at least your most useful emergency
tools inside your shelter.

As time and materials permit, continue to improve
your chances of surviving by doing as many of the
following things as possible:

( 1 ) Make a homemade fallout meter, as described
in Appendix C, and expedient lights.
(Prudent people will have made these

extremely useful items well ahead of
time.)

(2) Install screens or mosquito netting over the
two openings, if mosquitoes or flies are a
problem. Remember, however, that screen or
netting reduces the air flow through a shelter

even when the air is pumped through with a
K.AP.

(3) Dig a stand-up hole near the far end of the
shelter. Make the hole about 1 5 in. in diameter
and deep enough to permit the tallest of the
shelter occupants to stand erect occasionally.

ornl om« ti-iitbrr

BOARDS OR STICKS
OPINING OF VENTILATION

VENTILATION TRENCH

IF BOA NOB ON

STICKS ARE NAILABLE

IFT1MB PERMITS AND ENOUGH
ROOFING MATERIALS FOR 18-
in WIDE TRENCHES ARE AVAIL-
ABLE (TWO ADDITION AL DOORS.
OR BOARDS OR STICKS AT
LEAST 3 ft LONG) MAKE BOTH
ENTRANCE TRENCH AND VEN-
TILATION TRENCH ABOUT 30 tn
LONGER FOR INCREASED PRO-
TECTION

RAINPROOF
•buried ROOF*

0PEN-S4X0 CANOPY TO KEEP FALLOUT AND
RAINFALL OUT OF OPENING. CANOPY IS

OPCN-SOCO

CANOPY

r TMC AND MATERIALS ARC AVAIL-
ABLE AFTER COMPLETING TMC SMELTER.
MAKE THE SHl£L0MfG AROUNO TmC
ENTRY WAY 12 in. HIGHCR-AS INCMCATEO
BY THE DASHED LINES FOR ADDITIONAL
SANOBAGS

THRESHOLD BOARD

SECTION B-B

Fig. A.l. Door-Covered Trench Shelter.

SLIGHTLY
TOMRRO ENTRY

Appendix A. 2

Pole-Covered Trench Shelter

PROTECTION PROVIDED

Against fallout radiation: Protection Factor 300
(PF 300) — a person in the open outside this shelter
would receive 300 times more fallout radiation than
he would if he were inside.

Against blast: Quite good protection if built in
stable earth. Blast tests have indicated that this
shelter, if built in stable earth, would not be seriously
damaged by blast effects of large explosions at least
up to the 7-psi overpressure range. (At 7 psi. most
buildings would be demolished.) Without blast
doors, occupants of the shelter could be injured,
although probably not fatally at this overpressure.

Against fire: Excellent, if sufficiently distant
from fires producing carbon monoxide and toxic
smoke.

WHERE PRACTICAL

In wooded areas with small trees, for builders
w ho have an ax or a bow saw, crosscut or chain saw,
and digging tools. Or in any location where the
necessary poles may be obtained.

In stable earth, where the water table or rock is
more than 4 1 2 ft below the surface.

FOR WHOM PRACTICAL

For a typical family or other group with two
or more members able to work hard for most of
48 hours. (Stronger-than-average families with
almost all members able to work hard have com-
pleted this type of shelter is about 24 hours after
receiving step-by-step, well illustrated instruc-
tions. before travelling to the wooded building
site and beginning to cut trees and haul poles.)

CAPACITY

The shelter illustrated is the minimum length
recommended for 4 persons. For each additional
person, add at least 2% ft to the length of the shelter

room. If more than about 10 persons are to be
sheltered, build 2 or more separate shelters.

BUILDING INSTRUCTIONS

1. Before beginning work, study the drawings
and read ALL of the following instructions.
Divide the work so that some people will be
digging while others are cutting and hauling
poles. CHECK OFF EACH STEP WHEN
COMPLETED.

2. By the time the shelter is finished, plan to have
completed: (1) a ventilating pump, and (2) the
storage of at least 15 gallons of drinking water
per occupant (see Appendix B and Chapter 8).

3. Start to assemble materials and tools. Those
listed are for the illustrated 4-person shelter with
a room 1 1 ft long.

A. Essential Materials and Tools

• Saw (bow saw or crosscut preferred)
and/or ax for cutting poles to the lengths and
diameters illustrated.

• Shovels (one for each two workers).

• Pick (if the ground is hard).

• Rainproof roof materials (very impor-
tant in rainy, cold weather). At least 2 square
yards of such material per person w'ould be
required; 3 square yards per person would be
better. Shower curtains, plastic tablecloths,
plastic mattress covers, canvas, and the like
can be used. Also needed are 2 pieces of
plastic or tightly woven cloth, each about
6 l / 2 X 6'/ 2 ft, to make canopies over the two
shelter openings.

• Materials and tools for building a simple
shelter-ventilating pump, a KAP 22 in. wide
and 36 in. long. (See Appendix B.) Only in
cold or continuously breezy, cool weather

can tolerable temperatures and humidities be
maintained for days in a crowded under-
ground shelter that lacks an air pump.

• Containers for storing adequate water.
(See Chapter 8.)

B. Useful Materials and Tools

• Large cans, buckets, and/or pots with
bail handles — in which to carry earth and
later to store drinking water and human
wastes.

• Two bedsheets and two pillowcases per
person for covering cracks between roofing
logs, making “sandbags,” and improvising
bedsheet-hammocks and bedsheet-chairs.

• A file.

• A measuring tape, yardstick, or ruler.

• Rope, or strong wire (100 ft)— to make
earth-retaining pole walls close to the shelter
openings (as explained in step 19) and for
hammock supports, etc.

• Chain saw, pick-mattock, hammer,
hatchet, pliers.

• Kerosene, turpentine, or oil — to keep
hand saws from sticking in gummy wood.

• Expedient life-support items recom-
mended in this book.

• Mosquito netting or window screen to
cover the openings, if mosquitoes or flies are
likely to be a problem.

4. To save time and work, SHARPEN ALL
TOOLS AND KEEP THEM SHARP.

5. Wear gloves from the start— even tough hands
can blister after hours of chopping and digging,
and become painful and infected.

6. If possible, select a location for the shelter that is
in the open and at least 50 ft from a building or
woods. Remember that on a clear day the
thermal pulse (flash of heat rays) from a very
large nuclear explosion may cause fires as far
away as 25 miles.

7. If the site chosen is on a steep slope, locate the
shelter with its length crosswise to the direction
of the slope.

8. Stake out the outlines of the trench, driving
stakes as indicated in Fig. A.2. 1 at the end of
Appendix A. 2. If more than 4 persons are to be
sheltered, increase the length of the shelter room
by 2 ft 9 in. for each additional person.

9. Clear the ground of saplings and tall grass within
10 ft of the staked outlines so that later the
excavated earth can be easily shoveled back onto
the completed shelter roof.

10. Start digging, throwing the first earth about 10 ft
beyond the staked outlines of the trench. Less
able members of the family should do the easier
digging, near the surface. Those members who
can use an ax and saw should cut and haul poles.
See the introductory section of this appendix for
the know-how to make this hard work easier.

1 1 . Pile all excavated earth at least 2 ft beyond the
edges of the trench, so roofing poles can be laid
directly on the ground. To make sure that the
trenches are dug to the specified full widths at the
bottoms, cut and use two sticks — one 42 in. long
and the other 22 in. long — tocheck trench widths
repeatedly. .

12. At the far end of-the shelter dig the ventilation
trench-emergency exit, making it 22 in. wide and
40 in. deep. This will help provide essential
ventilation artd cooling. In cold weather or when
fallout is descending, canvas or plastic curtains
should be hung in the two openings to control the
air flow.

13. Make and install threshold boards, to keep the
edges of earth steps and earth ledges from being
broken off. (In damp earth, it is best to install
threshold boards before roofing the shelter.) If
boards are lacking, use small poles.

14. Unless the weather is cold, build a shelter-
ventilating pump — a KAP 20 in. wide X 36 in.
high. (If the weather is cold , building a KAP can
be safely delayed until after the shelter is
completed.) A KAP should be made before a
crisis, or, if possible, before leaving home.

15. Obtain fresh-cut green poles, or, as a second
choice, sound, dry, untreated poles. Use no poles
smaller in diameter than those specified in the
accompanying drawings. For ease in hauling,
select poles no more than 50% larger in diameter
than those specified.

16. Lay the poles side by side over the trench.
Alternate the large and small ends to keep the
poles straight across the trench. If roof poles 9 ft
long are being used to roof a 5-ft-wide trench, be
sure to place the roof poles so that their ends
extend 2 ft farther beyond one side of the trench
than beyond the other side. This will enable
shelter occupants, after the stoop-in shelter is
completed, to widen the shelter room 2 ft on one
side. F irst, it can be widened to provide a 2-ft-
wide sleeping ledge. Later, it can be further
deepened to make space for additional expedient
hammocks or for double-bunk beds of poles or
boards built on each side of the shelter.

17. For ease and safety later when hanging expedient
bedsheet-hammocks and bedshcet-chairs in the
completed shelter, place loose loops around roof
poles in the approximate locations given by the
diagram on the second shelter drawing. Fig.
A. 2. 2. Make these loose loops of rope, or strong
w ire, or 16-in-wide strips of strong cloth; such as
50 r r polyester bedsheet rolled up to form a
"rope". (For making hammocks and seats, see
Chapter 14. These are not essential, although
decidedly useful.)

18. Cover the cracks between the logs with cloth,
leaves, clay, or any other material that will keep
dirt from falling down between the cracks.
CAUTION: 170 NOT try to rainproof this flat
roof, and then simply cover it with earth. Water
will seep through the loose earth cover, puddle
on the flat roofing material, and leak through the
joints between pieces of roofing material or
through small holes.

19. Place 6-ft-long poles, one on top of the other,
next to the entrances. I his will keep earth to be
placed on top ol the entryway trenches from
falling into the openings. Secure these poles with
wire or rope. (See View A-A 1 in F ig. A. 2.1.) If
wire or rope is not available, make earth-filled
“rolls’' to hold the earth nearly vertical on the
trench roof next to each opening. (Sec the
introductory section of this appendix.)

20. Mound earth to a center depth of about 18 in.
over the shelter roof (as shown in View B-B 1 in
F ig. A. 2. !) to form the surface of the future
“buried roof." Be sure to slope both sides of the
mound. Then smooth its surface and remove
sharp roots and stones that might puncture thin
rainproofing materials to be placed upon it.

21. Place the waterproofing material on the "buried
roof." If small pieces must be used, lay them in
shingle-like fashion, starting at the lower sides of
the mounded earth.

22. Cover the buried roof with another 18 in. of
mounded earth, and smooth this final earth
surface.

23. Finish the entrances by placing some shorter
poles between the two longer poles next to each
entryway. Bank and pack earth at least 6 in. deep
around the sides of the entrances, so that
rainwater on the ground cannot run into the
shelter entrances.

24. Dig surface drainage ditches around the outside
of the mounded earth and around the entrances.

25. Place a piece of water-shedding material over
each of the entrances, forming an open-ended
canopy to keep fallout and rain from the shelter
openings. (See Fig. A in the introductory section
of Appendix A.) Almost all fallout would settle
on these suspended canopies, rather than falling
into shelter openings — or would fall off their
edges and onto the ground like sand.

26. Hang the KAP from the roof of the trench opening
into which outdoor air can be felt flowing, so that
air will be pumped in the direction of the natural
flow of air. (If you have no KAP, make and
use a small Directional Fan.)

27. Fill all available water containers, including pits
which have been dug and lined with plastic, then
roofed- with available materials. If possible, disin-
fect all water stored in expedient containers, using
one scant teaspoon of a chlorine bleach, such as
Clorox, for each 10 gallons of water. Even if only
muddy water is available, store it. If you do not
have a disinfectant, it may be possible to boil water
when needed.

28. Put all of your emergency tools inside your
shelter.

29. As time and materials permit, continue to improve
your chances of surviving by doing as many of the
following things as possible:

( 1 ) Make a homemade fallout meter, as described
in Appendix C, and expedient lights.
(Prudent people will have made these
extremely useful items well ahead of
time.)

(2) Make and hangexpedient bedsheet-hammocks
and bedsheet-chairs, following the installation
diagram shown in Fig. A. 2.2.

(3) Install screens or mosquito netting over the
two openings, if mosquitoes or flies are a
problem. Remember, however, that screen or
netting reduces the air flow through a shelter

even when the air is pumped through with a
KAP.

(4) Dig a stand-up hole near the far end of the
shelter. Make the hole about 15 in. in diameter
and deep enough to permit the tallest of the
shelter occupants to stand erect occasionally.

C«NL owe 74- >1755 R

Fig. A.2.1. Pole-Covered Trench Shelter.

itn.lARTH fit

Fig. A.2.2. Pole-Covered Trench Shelter.

Appendix A. 3
Small-Pole Shelter

PROTECTION PROVIDED

Against fallout radiation: Protection Factor 1000
(PF 1000), if the shelter is covered with at least 3 ft of
earth. That is, a person in the open outside this shelter
will receive a gamma ray dose 1000 times greater than
he will receive inside the shelter. See drawings at the
end of Appendix A. 3.

Against blast: This shelter is excellent for pre-
venting fatalities if it is built with strong expedient blast
doors; it is still quite good if built without them. (These
instructions are for fallout shelters. The instructions for
making blast doors and other essentials for adequate
blast protection are given in Appendix D. Without
blast doors, occupants are likely to suffer seri-
ous injuries above 7 psi.)

Against fire: Excellent, if sufficiently distant
from fires that produce carbon monoxide and toxic
smoke.

WHERE PRACTICAL

In wooded areas with small trees, for builders who
have a saw (bow saw, crosscut, or chain saw) and
digging tools. Any location is suitable if the necessary
poles may be obtained there. Try to avoid roots.

For belowground, semiburied, or aboveground
construction. (However, aboveground construction
requires the excavation and movement of so much
earth that it is not practical for 2-day construction by
families with only hand tools.)

FOR WHOM PRACTICAL

For families or other groups with most members
able to work hard 12 hours a day for 2 days. (Most
people do not realize how hard and long they can
work if given a strong incentive.)

CAPACITY

The drawings and lists of materials given in these
instructions are for a 12-person shelter. For each
additional occupant beyond 12, add 1 ft to the length
of the shelter room.

This shelter requires less work and materials per
occupant if its room is sized for about 24 persons,
because the entrances are the same regardless of the
length of the room. (To make the shelter room twice
as long, each of the horizontal, ladder-like braces on
the floor and near the ceiling of the room can be made
with two poles on a side, rather than one long pole on
a side.)

If the room is sized for more than 24 people,
management and hygiene problems become more
difficult when it is occupied.

For 12 people to live for many days in this shelter
without serious hardship, the benches and bunks
must be built with the dimensions and spacings given
in the illustration. Or, materials must be available for
making and suspending 12 expedient bedsheet-
hammocks that can be converted each day into 12
bedsheet-chairs.

BUILDING INSTRUCTIONS

1. Study both of the two drawings (Fig. A. 3.1
and A. 3.2 at the end of Appendix A. 3) and read
all of these instructions before beginning
work. CHECK OFF EACH STEP WHEN
COMPLETED.

2. By the time the shelter is finished, plan to have
completed (1) a ventilating pump (a KAP 24 in
wide and 36 in. high), essential except in cold
weather, and (2) the storage of at least 15 gallons
of water per occupant.

3. Start to assemble the required materials. For
building a 12-person Small-Pole Shelter, the
materials are:

• Green poles. No pole should have a
small end of less diameter than the minimum
diameter specified for its use by Figs. A. 3.1 and
A. 3. 2. The table below lists the number and sizes
of poles needed to build a 12-person Small-Pole
Shelter.

Pole Length

Minimum Diameter
of Small End

Number of
Poles Required

Width*

6 ft 2 in.

5 in.

2

—

3 ft 1 in.

5 in.

12

-

2 ft 4 in."

5 in.

12

-

10 ft 8 in.

5 in.

-

7 ft

8 ft 8 in.

5 in.

-

7 ft

10 ft 6 in.

4 in.

4

-

7 ft 2 in.

4 in.

-

47 ft

5 ft 6 in."

4 in.

12

-

6 ft 10 in.

4 in.

-

3 ft

6 ft 3 in.

4 m.

8

-

2 ft 6 in."

4 in.

16

-

2 ft 3 in.

4 in.

4

-

5 ft 2 in.

3' . in.

-

8 ft

3 ft 10 in.

10 ft

3' > in.

2 in.

12

36 ft

“To be shortened to fit for crossbraces.

'Width equals the distance measured across a single layer of poles
when a sufficient number of poles are laid on the ground side by side
and touching, to cover a rectangular area.

For supports during construction.

NOTE: The above list does not include flooring materials, to be
placed between the poles of the ladder-like braces on the earth floor.

• Rainproofing materials: Preferably one
100-ft roll, 12 ft wide, of 6-mil polyethylene. The
minimum amount needed is 200 sq. ft. of 4-mil
polyethylene, or 200 sq. ft of other waterproof
plastic such as tablecloths, shower curtains,
and/or vinyl floor covering. Also include 100 ft
of sticks for use in drainage ditch drains ('/ 2 -in.
diameter, any lengths).

• Nails, wire, and/or cord: Ten pounds of
40-penny nails plus 4 pounds of 16-penny nails
are ideal. However, 7 pounds of 16-penny nails
can serve.

• Boards for benches and overhead bunks,
if bedsheet-hammocks are not to be used.
(Boards are desirable, but not essential; small
poles can be used instead.) 2 X 4-in. boards — 70
feet for frames (or use 3-in. -diameter poles). 1 X
8-in. boards — 1 00 feet (or use I - to 2-in. -diameter
poles).

• Materials to build a homemade ventilat-
ing pump (a K AP 24 in. wide and 36 in. high — see
Appendix B) and to store at least 15 gallons of
water per occupant (see Chapter 8).

4. Desirable muscle-powered tools for building a
12-person, Small-Pole Shelter are listed below.
(Most builders have succeeded without having
this many tools. A backhoe, chain saws, and
other mechanized equipment would be helpful,

but not essential.)

Tools Quantity

Ax, long-handle 2

Bow-saw, 28-in. 2

(or 2-man crosscut saw) I

Pick . 2

Shovel, long-handle 3

Claw hammer 2

File, 10-in. 1

Steel tape, 10-ft 1

(Also useful: a 50-ft steel tape and 2 hatchets)

5. To help drain the floor, locate the shelter so that
the original ground level at the entrance is about
12 inches lower than the original ground level at
the far end of the shelter—unless the location is
in a- very flat area.

6. Stake out the trench for the entire shelter. Even
in very firm ground, if the illustrated 12-person
shelter is being built, make the excavation at the
surface 9 ft 8 in. wide and 18 ft long (3 ft longer
than the entire length of the wooden shelter). The
sloping sides of the excavation are necessary,
even in very firm earth, to provide adequate
space for backfilling and tamping. (The trench
illustrated in Fig. A. 3. 1 is 6 ft 4 in. deep, to
minimize work when providing only for excellent
fallout protection. For improved blast protec-
tion, the trench should be at least 7 ft deep.)

7. Check the squareness of the staked trench outline
by making its diagonals equal.

8. Clear all brush, tall grass, and the like from the
ground, to a distance of 10 ft all around the
staked location — so that later you can easily
shovel loose earth back onto the roof.

9. If the ground is unstable, excavate with sides that
are appropriately less steep.

10. When digging the trench for the shelter, use a
measuring stick 7 ft 8 in. long (the minimum

bottom width) to repeatedly check the excava-
tion width.

1 1. When digging with a shovel, pile the earth dug
from near ground level about 10 ft away from the
edges of the excavation. Earth dug from 5 or 6 ft
below ground level then can easily be piled on the
surface only 1 to 5 ft from the edge of the
excavation.

12. Finish the bottom of the excavation so that it
slopes vertically */2 in. per foot of length toward
the entrance, and also slopes toward the central
drain ditch. (Later, sticks covered with porous
fabric should be placed in the ditches, to serve
like a crushed-rock drain leading to a sump.)

13. While some persons are excavating, others
should be cutting green poles and hauling them
to the site. Cut poles that have tops no smaller
than the specified diameters for each type of pole
(not including the barK).

14. For ease in handling poles, select wall and roof
poles with top diameters no more than 50%
larger than the specified minimum diameters.

1 5. Sort the poles by size and lay all poles of the same
size together, near the excavation.

16. Before the excavation is completed, start
building the ladder-like, horizontal braces of the
shelter frame. Construct these braces on smooth
ground near the excavation. Place two straight
poles, each 10 ft 6 in. long (with small-end
diameters of 4 in.), on smooth ground, parallel
and 6 ft 2 in. apart. Flold these poles securely so
that their outer sides are exactly 6 ft 2 in. apart,
by driving two pairs of stakes into the ground so
that they just touch the outsides of the two long
poles. Each of the four stakes should be located
about one foot from the end of a pole. To keep
the 10 ft 6 in. poles from being rotated during the
next step, nail two boards or small poles across
them perpendicularly as temporary braces,
about 4 ft apart.

Then with an ax or hatchet, slightly flatten the
inner sides of the two poles at the spots where the
ends of the 6 cross-brace poles will be nailed.
Next, saw each cross-brace pole to the length
required to fit snugly into its place. Finally,
toenail each cross-brace pole in place, preferably
with two 40-penny nails in each end.

17. Place the lower, ladder-like horizontal brace of
the main room on the floor of the completed
excavation.

18. Build the frame of the main room. Near the four
corners of the room, secure four of its wall poles
in their Final vertical positions by nailing, wiring,
or tying temporary brace-poles to the inner sides
of these 4 wall poles and to the inner sides of the
two long poles of the ladder-like horizontal brace
on the bottom of the excavation. To keep the two
pairs of vertical wall poles exactly 6 ft 2 in. apart
until the upper ladder-like horizontal brace is
secured in its place, nail a temporary horizontal
brace across each pair of vertical poles, about 1 ft
below their tops.

19. To support the upper ladder-like horizontal
brace, nail blocks to the inner sides of the four
vertical wall poles, as shown in the lower right-
hand corner of the pictorial view, Fig. A. 3. 2. If
you have large nails, use a block about 3 in. thick
and 6 in. long, preferably cut from a green, 4-in.-
diameter pole.

20-. In the finished shelter, DO NOT leave any
vertical support poles under the long poles of the
upper ladder-like horizontal brace; to do so
would seriously reduce the usable space along the
walls for benches, bunks, and occupants.

2 1 . While some workers are building the frame of the
main room, other workers should make the four
ladder-like horizontal braces for the two en-
trances, then make the complete entrances. To
keep the ladder-like horizontal braces square
during construction and back-filling, nail a
temporary diagonal brace across each one.

22. When the four wall poles and the two ladder-like
horizontal braces of the main room are in place,
put the remaining vertical wall poles in place,
touching each other, until all walls are com-
pleted. When placing the wall poles, keep them
vertical by alternately putting a butt and a top
end uppermost. Wall poles can be held in
position by backfilling and tamping about a foot
of earth against their lower ends, or they can be
wired in position until backfilled.

23. Be sure to use the two 5-in.-diameter poles (6 ft 2
in. long) by placing one next to the top and the
other next to the bottom of each of the main
doorways to the room. Study the drawings. Use
braces, each 2 ft 3 in. long, to hold apart the top
and bottom of each doorway thus making sure
that a 24-in.-wide air pump can swing in either
doorway.

24. To prevent earth from coming through the
cracks between wall poles ; cover the walls with

cloth, plastic, rugs, roofing, or even cardboard. If
none of these are available, use sticks, twigs, or
grass to cover the wider cracks.

25. After all horizontal bracing and vertical wall
poles are in place, begin backfilling, putting earth
between the walls and trench sides. Pay particu-
lar attention to the order of filling. The earth fill
behind all the walls must be brought up quite
evenly, so that the earth fill behind one side is no
more than 1 2 in. higher at any one time than the
earth on the opposite side. Lightly tamp the earth
fill in 6-in. layers. A pole makes a good tamper;
do not use a mechanical tamper.

26. Next, lay the roof poles side by side, touching
each other on top of the wall poles. Cover at least
the larger cracks with plastic, roofing, boards, or
sticks to keep earth from falling through. If the
earth is sandy, cover the whole roof with some
material such as bedsheets or plastic to keep
sand from running through the cracks.

CAUTION: Do not try to rainproof this flat roof
and simply cover it with earth. If you do, water
will seep straight through the loose earth cover,
puddle on the flat roofing material, and leak
through the joints between pieces of roofing
material or through small holes.

27. Mound earth over the shelter, piling it about 15
in. deep along the centerline of the roof and
sloping it toward the sides of the roof, so that the
earth is only about 2 in. deep over the ends of the
roof poles. (Preparatory to mounding earth onto
the roof, place gradestakes in position so you will
be able to know the locations and depths of roof
poles as you cover them.) Continue these slopes
to two side drainage ditches. Smooth this
mounded earth with a rake or stick and remove
any sticks or rocks likely to puncture the
rainproof roofing material to be laid on it.

28. Place rainproofing material on top of the
smooth, mounded earth as shown in sections of
the drawings in Fig. A. 3.1 — to make a “buried
roof.” Plastic film, such as 4-mil polyethylene, is
preferable. Roofing material, plastic shower
curtains and tablecloths, or canvas can also be
used. Be sure to overlap adjoining pieces.

29. Place the rest of the earth cover over the shelter,
being sure that the corners of the shelter have at
least 2 1 2 ft of earth over them. Mound the dirt,
smoothing its surface so that water will tend to
run off to the surface drainage ditches which

should be dug all around the edges of the
mounded earth.

30. Build the benches and overhead bunks. If boards
are available, use them; if not, use small, straight
poles. On each side, build a row of benches and
bunks 9 ft long, centered in the shelter. In order
to use the shelter space to the greatest advantage,
make the heights and widths of the benches and
bunks the same as the thoroughly tested heights
(14 in. and 4 ft 5 in.) and widths (16 in. and 24 in.)
given by Fig. A. 3. 2. Also be sure to space their
vertical supports 3 ft apart -so two adults can sit
between each pair of vertical bunk supports.

31. Narrow the ends of the overhead bunks so that
the aisle between them is about 28 in. wide for a
distance of 38 in. from each doorway. This allows
room for installation and operation of an
expedient air pump (a KAP) for prevention of
dangerous overheating in warm weather.

32. Place a canopy (open on all sides) over each
entrance, to minimize the entry of sand-like
fallout particles or rain.

33. To improve the floor, lay small poles between the
lower brace poles, so that the floor is approxi-
mately level. Or, use sticks covered with scrap
boards.

34. Fill all available water containers, including pits
which have been dug and lined with plastic, then
roofed with available materials. If possible,
disinfect all water stored in expedient containers,
using one scant teaspoon of a chlorine bleach,
such as Clorox, for each 10 gallons of water.
Even if only muddy water is available, store it. If
you do not have a disinfectant, it may be possible
to boil water when needed.

35. Put all of your emergency tools inside your
shelter.

36. As time and materials permit, continue to improve
your chances of surviving by doing as many of the
following things as possible:

( 1 ) Make a homemade fallout meter, as described
in Appendix C, and expedient lights.
(Prudent people will have made these
extremely useful items well ahead of
time.)

(2) Install screens or mosquito netting over the
two openings, if mosquitoes or flies are a
problem. Remember, however, that screen or
netting reduces the air flow through a shelter
— even when the air is pumped through with a
KAP.

EXPEDIENT VENTILATION AND COOLING

(Those workers who are to work only on the
shelter itself, if pushed for time, need not read this
section before beginning their work.)

Install a K AP (one that is 24 in. wide and 36 in.
high) near the top of the doorway through which you
can feel air naturally flowing into the shelter room at
that time. (If the direction of the natural air flow
changes, move the K.AP to the other opening.) To
enable the K.AP to efficiently pump fresh air from the
outdoors all the way through the shelter, block the
lower half of the doorway in which the K.AP is
installed with a quickly removable covering, such as a
plastic-covered frame made of sticks. Be sure to
connect the KAP’s pullcord only 11 -in. below its
hinge line. This prevents excessive arm motions
which would cause unnecessary fatigue.

If short of time or materials, make a small
Directional Fan.

In windy or cold weather, control the natural
flow of air through the shelter by hanging adjustable
curtains in the doorways at both ends, and/or by
making and using trapdoors on the tops of the
vertical entryways. For adjustable curtains, use
pieces of plastic, each with a supporting stick
attached to its upper edge. This allows for different-
sized openings in the doorways: (1) an opening under
the lower edge of the adjustable curtain at the air-
intake end of the room, and (2) an opening over the
top of the curtain at the air-exhaust end of the room.
In cold weather, this arrangement usually will
provide adequate chimney-type ventilation for the
shelter without using an air pump.

VERTICAL SECTION C-C

CMNL OWO 71-y*** ms

Appendix A. 4

Aboveground, Door-Covered Shelter

PROTECTION PROVIDED

Against fallout radiation: Protection Factor
about 200 (PF 200) if covered with 30 in. of earth. (A
person in the open outside this shelter would receive
about 200 times more fallout radiation than if he were
inside.) The drawing at the end of Appendix A.4
shows the earth cover only 20 in. thick, resulting in a
PF of about 100.

Against blast: Better protection than most
homes. Blast tests have indicated that this shelter
would be undamaged at least up to the 5-psi
overpressure range from large explosions. Without
blast doors the shelter’s occupants could be injured at
this overpressure range, although probably not
fatally.

Against fire: Fair, if the cloth in the entries is
covered with mud and if the shelter is sufficiently
distant from fires producing carbon monoxide and
toxic smoke.

WHERE PRACTICAL

In a location where at least one hollow-core
door per occupant is available, where a dry
trench at least 14 inches deep can be dug without
difficulty, but the water table or rock is too close
to the surface for a covered-trench shelter to be
practical. (A family evacuating in a pickup
truck or large station wagon can carry enough
doors, with doorknobs removed. Strong boards
at least 6 feet long and at least one full inch
thick, or plywood at least %-inch thick, also can
be used to roof this shelter and to support its
overhead earth shielding.

Warning: Some doors with single-thickness
panels if loaded with earth will break before
they bend enough to result in protective earth
arching.

FOR WHOM PRACTICAL

For a typical family or other group with two
or more members able to work hard for most of
36 hours. Very little building skill is needed. (An
urban family of six, with 14- and 12-year-old
sons and 13- and 9-year-old daughters, com-
pleted this shelter, sized for six persons, in one
long working day: 13 hours and 43 minutes after
receiving the step-by-step, will illustrated in-
structions at their Florida home 10 miles from

the rural building site. This family used its
pickup truck to carry them, the interior doors,
and other survival items.)

CAPACITY

The shelter illustrated in Fig. A.4 is the
minimum length for 4 persons. It is roofed with 6
doors.

For each additional person, add another door.
(If more than about 7 persons are to be sheltered,
build 2 or more separate shelters.)

BUILDING INSTRUCTIONS

1. Before beginning work, study the drawing and
read ALL of the following instructions. Divide the
work so that some will be digging while others are
building an air pump, storing water, etc. CHECK
OFF EACH STEP WHEN COMPLETED.

2. By the time the shelter is finished, plan to have
completed a ventilating pump (a 16-in.-wide by 24-
in. -high KAP — essential except in cold weather) and
the storage of 15 gallons of water per occupant. (See
Appendix B and Chapter 8.)

3. Start to assemble the materials and tools needed.
For the illustrated 4-person shelter, these are:

A. Essential Materials and Tools

• Six doors. Boards or plywood at least %-
in. thick can be used to replace one or more of
the doors.

• At least 4 double-bed sheets for each of
the first four persons, and 3 double-bed
sheets for each additional person to be
sheltered or enough pieces of fabric and / or
of plastic to cover at least as large an area as
the sheets would cover. (This material is for
making aboveground shelter walls, to serve
as sand bags.)

• Rainproofing materials (plastic film,
shower curtains, plastic tablecloths, mattress
protectors, etc.) — 1 5 square yards for the first
4 persons and 2% square yards for each
additional person.

• A shovel (one shovel for each two
workers is desirable). A pick or mattock if the
ground is very hard.

• A knife (the only essential tool for
making a small shelter-ventilating K.AP) and
materials for a KAP 16 in. wide and 24 in.
high. (See Appendix B.)

• Containers for storing water. (See
Chapter 8.)

B. Useful Materials and Tools

• Two or more buckets, large cans and/or
large pots with bail handles — to carry earth,
and later to store water or wastes.

• Saw (or ax or hatchet)— to cut a few
boards or small poles.

• Hammer and at least 1 5 small nails (at
least 2 V 2 in. long).

• Tape measure, yardstick, or ruler.

• Additional cloth and/ or plastic equiv-
alent in size to 2 more double-bed sheets for
each person.

• Additional waterproof material — 2
more square yards per person.

• Pillowcases, or cloth or plastic bags — to
serve as earth-filled sand bags. The more, the
better.

4. To save time and work, sharpen all tools and
keep them sharp.

5. Wear gloves from the start, to help prevent
blisters and infections.

6. Select a building site where there is little or no
chance of the ground being covered with water,
and where the water table (groundwater level) is
not likely to rise closer than 18 inches to the
surface.

7. To avoid the extra work of digging among roots,
select a site away from trees, if practical.

8. To lessen the dangers of fire and smoke from
nearby houses or trees that might catch fire,
locate your shelter as far as is practical from
houses and flammable vegetation.

9. Before staking out your shelter, provide one door
per person to roof the main room plus one

additional door for each of the two entries. Be
sure the door knobs have been removed. Use the
two widest doors to roof the entries.

10. To be sure that all the walls will be in the proper
positions to be roofed with the available doors,
lay all the doors on the ground, touching each
other and in the same relative positions they will
have when used to roof the shelter. When all the
roof doors are on the ground, side by side,
determine the exact length of the shelter room.
(Note that Fig. A.4 illustrates a shelter sized for
only 4 persons.)

1 1 . Stake out the shelter.

12. Make the earth-filled “rolls” that will form the
aboveground walls of your shelter. To make
walls out of the rolls:

(1) Use doors as vertical forms to hold the
earth-filled rolls in place until the walls are
completed. (These are the same doors that
you will use later to roof the shelter.)

(2) Brace the door-forms with 36-in.-long
braces (boards or sticks) that press against
the doors, as shown in Fig. A.4. Nail only
the upper braces, using only very small
nails.

(3) After the forms for the two inner sides of the
shelter have been finished, put parts of the
long sides of bedsheets on the ground, as
illustrated. (Or use other equally wide,
strong cloth or plastic material.) About a 2-
ft width of cloth should be on the ground,
and the rest of each sheet should be folded
up out of the way, over the outsides of the
door-forms. Adjacent sheets should overlap
about 1 ft when making a roll than is longer
than one sheet.

(4) Shovel earth onto the parts of the sheet on
the ground to the height of the rolls you are
making, as shown. Note that the roll to be
made on one side is 2 in. higherthan the roll
on the other side.

(5) Shape the surface of the shoveled-on earth
as illustrated, to hold the “hooks” of cloth
to be formed when the exposed sides of the
sheets are folded down.

(6) Fold down the upper side of each sheet
while pulling on it to keep it tight and
without wrinkles. It should lie on the

prepared earth surface, including the small
narrow trench, as illustrated in the first
section of this appendix.

(7) Pack earth onto the part of the folded-down
sheet that is in the narrow, shallow trench.
Then, as shown in the sketches at the
bottom of the accompanying drawing, fold
back the loose edge over this small amount
of packed earth to form a “hook.” (The
hook keeps the weight of the earth inside a
roll from pulling the cloth out of its proper
position.)

(8) Make a roll first on one side of the shelter,
then on the other, to keep the heights of the
earth on both sides of the shelter about
equal. This will keep the unequal heights of
earth from pushing the door-forms out of
their vertical positions.

(9) Add additional earth on top of the rolls so
that the height of the level earth surface, out
to the full width of a roll, is the same as the
height of the cloth-covered part of the roll
that is against the door-form.

(10) When the roll walls have been raised to their
planned heights on both sides of the shelter,
remove the braces and the door-
forms — being careful to keep the brace nails
from damaging the doors.

(11) The door-forms of the side-walls of the
shelter can be removed before building the
end-walls.

13. When smoothing the earth surfaces of the final
tops of the roll walls on both sides, check to see
that they have the same slope as the lower sides of
the roof doors will have after they are placed on
the roll walls. (A slope is necessary so that
rainwater reaching the waterproof covering to be
placed over the doors will run off the lower side.)
Study Fig. A. 4.

1 4. After the side-walls have been completed (except
for their ends that form the sides of an entry) and
after the door-forms have been removed, use the
same doors for forms to build the two 22-in.-wide
entries.

15. Use earth-filled “sand bags” (made of pillowcases
or sacks, and/or the tucked-in ends of earth-
filled rolls) to make the outer ends of each
entryway.

16. Make the two doorway frames if lumber, nails,
and a saw are available. Make each frame as high
as the wall on each side of it, and slope the top
board of each frame so that it will press flat
against the doorto be supported. (If materials for
a frame are lacking, place a single 2 by 4-in.
board — or a pole about 6 ft. long — across the top
of the entry, in the position shown in Fig. A.4 for
the top of the doorway frame.)

17. After carefully removing all the temporary
braces from the door-forms and the doors
themselves, improve the slopes of the tops of all
supporting walls so that the doors will be
supported evenly and, without being twisted, will
make contact with the smooth, sloping earth or
cloth, upon which they will rest.

18. If more than enough waterproof plastic or
similar material is available to cover all the roof
doors, also cover the tops of the walls on which
the roof doors will rest. This will keep the doors
from absorbing water from damp earth.

19. Dig the illustrated 14-in.-deep, 36-in.-wide
trench inside the shelter. (If the water table is too
high to dig down 14 in., in some locations the
walls can be raised to a height of 38 in. by cutting
turf sods and laying them on top of the walls.
Another way the wall height can be increased is
by making additional rolls.)

20. Place the roof doors in their final positions, and
cover them with waterproof material (if avail-
able). Be sure the waterproof material is folded
under the higher edges of the doors — to keep the
material from slipping downward on the sloping
doors as earth is shoveled onto the roof.

21. Extend the waterproof material on top of the
doors a couple of feet beyond the lower ends of
the doors — if enough material is available to
cover all of the roof doors.

22. When shoveling the first layer of earth onto the
rainproof material protecting the doors, avoid
hitting and possibly puncturing it with rocks or
sharp pointed roots in the earth.

23. To make earth arching more effective in
supporting most of the earth to be placed on the
roof doors, first mound earth on and near the
ends of the doors.

24. Cover the roof with at least 20 in. of earth. Make
sure that there also is a thickness of at least 20 in.
of earth at the corners of both the room and
entries.

25. To prevent surface water from running into the
shelter if it rains hard, mound packed earth
about 5 in. high just inside the two entries. Rain
can be kept out by a small canopy or awning that
extends 2 or 3 ft in front of the outermost edge of
a doorway that roofs an entry.

26. If any waterproof material remains, use it to
cover the floor of the shelter.

27. If the weather is warm or hot, install a 16-in.-wide
by 24-in. -high air pump (a K. AP). Attach its hinges
to the board across the roof of the entry into which
outside air is moving naturally at the time. (If
short of time or materials for a K AP. make a
small Directional Fan.)

28. Cover all exposed combustible material with
mud, earth, or other fireproof material, to reduce
the chance of exposed cloth being ignited from a
nuclear explosion or heat from a nearby fire.

29. Fill all available water containers, including pits
which have been dug and lined with plastic, then
roofed with available materials. If possible.

disinfect all water stored in expedient containers,
using one scant teaspoon of a chlorine bleach,
such as Clorox, for each 10 gallons of water.
Even if only muddy water is available, store it. If
you do not have a disinfectant, it may be possible
to boil water when needed.

30. Put at least your most useful emergency
tools inside your shelter.

31. As time and materials permit, continue to improve
your chances of surviving by doing as many of the
following things as possible:

( 1 ) Make a homemade fallout meter, as described
in Appendix C, and expedient lights.
(Prudent people will have made these
extremely useful items well ahead of
time.)

(2) Install screens or mosquito netting over the
two openings, if mosquitoes or flies are a
problem. Remember, however, that screen or
netting reduces the air flow through a shelter
— even when the air is pumped through with a
K.AP.

Fig. A.4. Aboveground, Door-Covered Shelter.

Appendix A. 5

Aboveground, Ridgepole Shelter

PROTECTION PROVIDED

Against fallout radiation: Protection Factor 300
( PF 300) if covered with 24 in. of earth. (A person in
the open outside this shelter would receive about 300
times more fallout radiation than if he were inside.)
See the accompanying drawing at the end of
Appendix A. 5.

Against blast: Better protection than most
homes. Blast tests have indicated that this shelter
would be undamaged at least up to the 5-psi
overpressure range from large explosions. Without
blast doors, the shelter's occupants could be injured
at this overpressure range, although probably not
fatally.

Against fire: Good, if the shelter is sufficiently
distant from fires producing carbon monoxide and
toxic smoke.

WHERE PRACTICAL

In many wooded areas and wherever enough
poles are available.

In locations where belowground expedient
shelters are impractical because the water table or
rock is too close to the surface for a covered-trench
shelter.

FOR WHOM PRACTICAL

For a family or other group with five or
more members able to work hard for most of 48
hours, with at least one member able to saw and
fit poles and use the hand tools listed on the
following page. (A group of rural Florida fami-
lies. with 12 of the 15 members able to work,
completed a shelter like this 23 hours and 40
minutes after receiving the step-by-step, well

illustrated instructions 12 miles from the wooded
building site. They used only muscle-powered
tools, and moved over 50 tons of sandy shielding
earth.)

CAPACITY

The shelter illustrated in Fig. A. 5 is the
minimum length for 5 persons. For each additional
person, add 1 ft to the length of the ridgepole and
shelter room. (If more than about 1 5 persons are to be

BUILDING INSTRUCTIONS

1. Before beginning work, study Fig. A. 5 and read
ALL of the following instructions.

2. Divide the work. CHECK OFF EACH STEP
WHEN COMPLETED.

3. By the time the shelter is finished, plan to have
completed a ventilating pump (a KAP20in. wide
and 26 in high, essential for this shelter except in
cool weather) and the storage of at least 15
gallons of water per occupant. (See Appendix B
and Chapter 8.)

4. Start to assemble the materials. For the illus-
trated 5-person shelter, these are:

A. Essential Materials and Tools

• Poles. (Fresh-cut, green poles are best;
sound, untreated poles are satisfactory.) See
the following list for the number of poles
required for a 5-person shelter.

Use

Pole Length

Minimum
Diameter of
Small End

Number
of Poles
Required

Width When All
Are Laid on
the Ground

For main room:

Ridgepole

4 ft 9 in.

6 in.

1

Column-posts

4 ft 3 in.

5 in.

2

Footing log

8 ft 0 in.

6 in.

1

Cross braces

6 ft 2 in.

3 in.

2

Roof poles

9 ft 0 in.

4 in.

-

5 ft"

Vertical end-wall poles

5 ft 0 in.’

3 V; in.

-

14 ft A

Slanting end-wall poles

6 ft 6 in.’

3 V: in.

-

18 ft A

and extras

For outer sections of entryways:

Horizontal, poles

8 ft 0 in.

3 7 : in.

4

Cross braces (material for 16)

5 ft 0 in.’

37: in.

6

Wall poles

3 ft 4 in.

3 in.

-

32 ft A

Roof poles

2 ft 8 in.

27: in.’

-

12 ft"

For inner sections of entryways:

Long, sloping poles

14 ft 0 in.

4 in.

4

Cross braces

1 ft 8 in.’

4 in.

8

Vertical support poles

4 ft 0 in.’

4 in.

8

Roof poles

3 ft 0 in.

27: in.

—

13 ft A

“This width equals the distance measured across the tops of asingle layer of poles when a sufficient number of poles are laid on
the ground side by side with all the same ends in a straight line and touching. (These poles will be placed butt-ends down to form
the walls of the shelter room.)

'This width equals the distance measured across a single layer of poles when a sufficient number of poles are laid on the
ground side by side and touching, with large ends and small ends alternating so as to cover a rectangular area.

To be cut into the various lengths needed to close the ends of the main. room and also to close a part of each entryway.

• A saw and an ax or hatchet, to cut green
poles. (A bow saw or crosscut saw serves well
and often is more dependable than a chain
saw. Having an extra blade for a bow saw
may be essential.)

• Two shovels (one shovel for each two
workers is desirable). A pick will also be
needed, if the earth is hard.

• Large buckets, cans, or pots with bail
handles — in which to carry earth, and later to
store water or wastes.

• A knife.

• A hammer and at least 80 nails (3 in. or
longer). If these are not at hand, rope, wire,
or strips of cloth can be used to lash poles
together. At least 200 ft. of rope or strong
wire will be needed, or two additional
bedsheets for each person to be sheltered.
(Other fabric of equal strength can be used.)
The cloth can be cut or torn into foot-wide
strips and twisted slightly to make “rope.”

• Three double-bed sheets for the illus-
trated 5-person shelter or a piece of strong
fabric or plastic of about the same size. One
additional sheet for each additional 2
occupants. (If sufficient sheets or other
material are not available, use many sticks
and small poles, placed across the 9-ft side
poles.)

• At least 2 square yards per person of
rainproofing material (shower curtains,
plastic tablecloths, plastic mattress covers, or
the like)— essential in rainy, cold weather.

• Materials for building a ventilating
pump, a KAP 20 in. wide and 26 in. high.
(See Appendix B.)

• Containers for storing 15 gallons of
water per occupant. (See Chapter 8.)

B. Useful Tools and Materials

• Additional saws, axes, hatchets, shovels,
and large buckets or cans.

• A chain saw — if there is a person in the
group who is skilled at operating one.

• Kerosene, turpentine, or oil — to keep a
handsaw from sticking in green, gummy
wood.

• A measuring tape, yardstick, or ruler.

• One bedsheet for each person to be
sheltered, ora piece of strong fabric or plastic
of about the same size.

• A total of 40 square yards of rainproof-
ing materials for the illustrated 5-person
shelter and 3S square yards for each
additional person. (Even thin plastic will
serve for the “buried roof.”)

5. To save time and work, SHARPEN ALL
TOOLS AND KEEP THEM SHARP.

6. Wear gloves from the start — even tough hands
can blister after hours of digging and chopping
and can become painful and infected.

7. Select a shelter location where there is little
chance of the ground being covered with water if
it rains hard. (If you are sure the water table will
not rise to cover the floor of a shallow
excavation, you can save work by first lowering
the area of the planned main room by a foot or
two. After the shelter is roofed, the excavated
earth can be shoveled back to help cover the
completed pole roof.) To avoid the extra work of
cutting roots when excavating earth, select a site
at least as far away from a tree as the tree is tall.

8. For a shelter that is completely aboveground,
clear grass, weeds, etc. from the area where the
shelter is to be built. (This reduces the possible
problem of chiggers, ticks, etc.) Do not remove
any earth at this stage.

9. Stake out the entire shelter. Check the square-
ness of the shelter room by making its diagonals
equal. Then drive two lines of stakes to mark the
outside edges of the completed earth covering.
Place these stakes 4 ft outside the future positions
of the lower ends of the roof poles.

10. Check the squareness of the future floor area
inside the two lines marking where the
two V-shaped, 4-in. -deep trenches will be dug,
to secure the lower ends of the sloping side-poles
of the room. These two parallel lines are 14 ft 6
in. apart. When the two diagonals joining the

ends of these two parallel lines are equal in
length, the area between them has square
corners.

1 1 . While some persons are staking out the shelters,
others should be cutting green poles and hauling
them to the site. Cut poles that have tops with
diameters (excluding bark) no smaller than the
diameters specified on the illustration for each
type of pole.

12. To make the hauling and handling of the longer
poles easier, select poles with top diameters no
more than 50% larger than the specified
minimum diameters.

1 3. Sort the poles by length and diameter and lay all
poles of each size together, near the excavation.

14. AS SOON AS POLES ARE BROUGHT TO
THE SITE, SOME WORKERS SHOULD
START BUILDING THE FOUR LADDER-
LIKE HORIZONTAL BRACES FOR THE
ENTRYWAYS— TO AVOID DELAYS LAT-
ER. Study the drawing. Then construct these
braces on smooth ground near the excavation.
Place two straight poles, each 8 ft long (with
small-end diameters of 3*/2 in.), on smooth
ground, parallel and so that their outer sides are 3
ft apart. Hold these poles securely so that their
outer sides are exactly 3 ft apart, by driving two
pairs of stakes into the ground so that they just
touch the outsides of the two long poles. Each of
the four stakes should be located about one foot
from the end of a pole. To keep the 8-ft poles
from being rotated during the next step, nail two
boards or small poles across them perpen-
dicularly, as temporary braces, about 4 ft apart.

Then with an ax or hatchet, slightly flatten
the inner sides of the two poles at the spots where
the ends of the 4 cross-brace poles will be nailed.
Next, saw each cross-brace pole to the length
required to fit snugly into its place. Finally,
toenail each cross-brace pole in place, preferably
with two large nails in each end.

15. If more than 5 persons are to be sheltered, use 3
column-posts for 6 to 9 persons, and 4 column-
posts for 10 to 14 persons.

16. For each additional person beyond 5, make the
ridgepole and the footing log each 1 foot longer
than shown in Fig. A. 5.

17. After notching the footing log (see drawing),
place it in a trench dug deep enough so that the
bottoms of its notches are about 4 inches below
the surface of the ground.

18. Carefully dig the 4-in.-deep, V-shaped, straight
trenches in which the lower ends of the 9-ft wall
poles will rest. Dig each of these two parallel
trenches 7 ft 3 in. from the center line of the
footing log.

19. Carefully notch a “V” only about '/ 2 -in. deep in
the top of each of the two outer column-posts.
Then saw off the other ends so that each is 4 ft

3 in. long. (When they are placed on the notched
footing log and the ridgepole is placed on them,
the upper side of the ridgepole will be about 4 ft

4 in. above the ground.)

20. Place the two outer column-posts in their
notches in the footing log, and secure the base of
each column-post against sideways movement by -
placing two small-diameter, 4-ft horizontal poles
just below the ground level on both sides, as
illustrated. Then temporarily place and brace the
ridgepole in position.

21. For shelters sized for more than 5 occupants,
make and place the inner column-post, or posts.
To avoid cutting a “V”-notched column-post too
short, First carefully “V”-notch each remaining
column-post, cut it about 1 in. too long, and trim
it off to fit in its final position under the
ridgepole.

22. If nails at least 4 in. long are available, nail
sloping cross-braces to the inner sides of the
column-posts. If nails are not available, notch
slightly bowed cross-braces and the column-post
as illustrated; then lash or wire them in position.
(Strips of ordinary bedsheets, torn about a foot
wide and twisted together slightly, can be made
to serve as lashing “rope.”) To hold the tops of
the column-posts securely against the upper ends
of the cross-braces, a tightened “rope” loop that
encircles the tops of the column-posts can be
used.

23. Next put four of the larger-diameter, 9-ft roof-
poles in position, with the outsides of the
outermost two roof poles each only about 1 in.
from an end of the ridge pole.

24. Place the rest of the 9-ft roof-poles in position,
making sure that all their small ends are
uppermost, and that they are pressed together

and overlap on the ridgepole at least as far as
illustrated. Pack earth between their lower ends.
If the earth is clay, put small spacers of wood
between the ends.

25. At each end of the shelter room, build extra
shelter space and an entryway. First position two
14-ft poles with their upper ends resting on the
outermost wall poles. Study Fig. A. 5. Place the
two 14-ft poles 20 in. apart, parallel, and equally
distant from the centerline of the ridgepole. Nail
four 20-in. -long spacer-poles between each pair
of 14-ft poles, as illustrated. To make sure that
the upper ends do not move before earth pressure
holds them in place, tie the upper ends of the 14-ft
poles together. Drive a stake against the lower
end of each 14-ft pole, to keep it from slipping
outward. Under the center of each 14-ft pole,
place two supporting, vertical posts.

26. Dig. 4-in.-deep trenches for the lower ends of the
sloping end-wall poles of the main room. These
poles must be cut to length so that their upper
ends will be about 4 in. above the outermost 9-ft
roof pole against which they lean. Dig narrow,
vertical trenches, about 8 in. deep, for all vertical
wall poles that do not press against horizontal
brace poles near the ground.

27. Start- placing the sloping end-wall poles. First
place the longest pole, then the shorter poles — all
touching.

28. Across the open spaces between the 9-ft roof
poles, place limbs and/or sticks roughly hori-
zontally, as shown in the lower left-hand
drawing. Be sure to use limbs or sticks that have
diameters of at least V 2 in. and put them no
farther apart than 6 in. Leave needles and leaves
on the limbs. Do not leave sharp ends sticking
upward. Do not place more than a 6-in.-thick
mass of limbs and leaves over the side-poles. The
thickness of the earth cover necessary for
excellent fallout protection might be uninten-
tionally reduced by making the limb cover too
thick.

29. Place bedsheets (or 4-mil-thick polyethylene film
or equally sturdy material) over the limbs and
sticks to keep earth from falling through the roof.

30. To prevent sand or dry earth from falling
between the cracks where the poles are side by
side, cover these parts of the roof with cloth,
plastic, or paper. If these materials are not

available, use sticks, leaves, and grass. (In tick or
chigger season, avoid using grass or leaves from
on or near the ground.)

31. After the entry ways are completed, begin to
cover the shelter with earth. Starting from the
ground up, put on a full 1-ft thickness of earth
cover. First raise its height about a foot on one
side or end of the shelter, and then on the
other — repeatedly. This is to prevent unequal
loading from tipping the shelter or pushing it
over. (Do not excavate any earth closer than 3 ft
to the line of stakes marking the final outer edge
of the completed, 2-ft-thick earth cover.)

32. Fill the spaces between the entryways and the
main room only with earth. (An equal thickness
of wood or other light material provides much
less protection against radiation.)

33. Before placing the rainproofing material for the
“buried roof,” smooth the surface of the 1-ft-
thick earth cover. This will prevent sharp rocks
or sticks from puncturing the plastic or other
rainproofing material. If you do not have
sufficient waterproofing materials to cover the
whole roof, use what is available to rainproof the
central part, on both sides of the ridgepole.

34. To prevent rainwater on the ground outside from
running into the entryways, make mounds of
packed earth about 4 inches high across the
entry way floors, about 2 ft from their outer ends.
Dig a shallow drainage ditch completely around
the earth mounded over the shelter.

35. Unless the weather is cold, install your shelter-
ventilating K.AP in the entry into which you can
feel air moving naturally. (If short of time or
materials, make a small Directional Fan.)

36. Complete the storage of water and other
essentials.

37. To prevent fallout or rain from falling onto the
floor of the outer entryways, place a small
awning (not illustrated) over each opening.

38. Fill all available water containers, including pits
which have been dug and lined with plastic, then
roofed with available materials. If possible,
disinfect all waterstored in expedient containers,
using one scant teaspoon of a chlorine bleach,
such as Clorox, for each 10 gallons of water.
Even if only muddy water is available, store it. If
you do not have a disinfectant, it may be possible
to boil water when needed.

39. Put all of your emergency tools inside your
shelter.

40. As time and materials permit, continue to improve
your chances of surviving by doing as many of the
following things as possible:

( 1 ) Make a homemade fallout meter, as described
in Appendix C, and expedient lights.
(Prudent people will have made these
extremely useful items well ahead of
time.)

(2) Make and hang expedient bedsheet-hammocks.

(3) Install screens or mosquito netting over the
two openings, if mosquitoes or flies are a
problem. Remember, however, that screen or
netting reduces the air flow through a shelter
— even when the air is pumped through with a
K.AP.

(4) Dig a stand-up hole near the far end of the
shelter. Make the hole about 15 in. in diameter
and deep enough to permit the tallest of the
shelter occupants to stand erect occasionally.

Fig. A.5. Aboveground, Ridgepole Shelter.

Appendix A. 6

Aboveground, Crib-Walled Shelter

PROTECTION PROVIDED

Against fallout radiation: Protection Factor 200
(PF 200) if the earth-filled cribs are built to the full
width of 3 ft, as illustrated in Fig. A. 6 at the end of
these instructions. (A person in the open outside this
shelter would receive about 200 times as much fallout
radiation as he would if inside.) If earth is mounded
to the top of the walls and 3 ft deep over the roof, the
protection factor can be raised to PF 500 or better.
See the accompanying drawing at the end of
Appendix A. 6.

Against blast: Better protection than most
homes. Without blast doors, occupants could be
injured — although probably not fatally — at lower
overpressure ranges than those that would destroy
this shelter.

Against fire: Poor, if the shelter is built as
illustrated. The cloth and outer poles would be
unprotected from thermal pulse and other possible
sources of intense heat. However, if earth is mounded
around the walls so as to cover all exposed cloth and
wood, good fire protection would be provided.

WHERE PRACTICAL

The crib-walled shelter is practical in many
wooded areas and whenever enough poles are
available, or in locations where belowground
expedient shelters are impractical because the water
table or rock is too close to the surface for a covered-
trench shelter.

FOR WHOM PRACTICAL

For a family or group with three or more
members able to work very hard for most of 48 hours.
An unskilled family with an ax or saw and materials

found in most American homes can build this shelter.
No nails arc required. (Groups with the nails, tools,
skill, and the number of workers required to build a
Ridgepole Shelter are advised to do so; a Crib-Walled
Shelter requires almost twice the total length of poles
and more work to provide shelter for a given number
of persons.)

CAPACITY

The shelter illustrated in Fig. 6. 1 is the minimum
length for 5 persons. For each additional person, add
1 'h ft to the length of the room. (If more than about
12 persons are to be sheltered, build 2 or more
separate shelters.)

BUILDING INSTRUCTIONS

1. Before beginning work, study the drawing and
read ALL of the following instructions.

2. Divide the work. CHECK OFF EACH STEP
WHEN COMPLETED.

3. By the time the shelter is finished, plan to have
completed a ventilating pump (a K AP 20 in. wide
and 26 in. high, essential for this shelter except in
cool weather) and the storage of at least 15
gallons of water per occupant. (See Appendix B
and Chapter 8.)

4. Start to assemble materials and tools.

A. Essential Materials and Tools

• Poles. (Fresh-cut, green poles are best;
sound, untreated poles are satisfactory.) For
the illustrated 5-person shelter, the required
poles are listed on the following page.

Use

Pole Length

Minimum Diameter of
Small End

Number of
Poles
Required

Width When All

Are Laid on
the Ground®

Sides of longest crib

12% ft

3 in.

7 ft

Sides of middle-sized
crib

10 ft

3 in.

7 ft

Sides of shortest crib

7 ft

3 in.

7 ft

Ends of all cribs

3% ft

3 in.

21ft

Vertical poles at the
comers of all cribs

3% ft

2 in.

56

Main roof

9 ft

3% in.

12 ft

Entry way roofs

5 ft.

2% in.

22 ft

a

This width is the distance measured across a single layer of poles when a sufficient number of them are
laid on the ground side by side and touching, with large ends and small ends alternating so as to coyer a rec-
tangular area.

• A saw (preferably a bow saw with an
extra blade, or a crosscut saw) and/or an
ax — for cutting green poles.

• A shovel (one for each two workers is
desirable).

• A pick (if the ground is very hard).

• Two to five large cans, buckets, and/or
pots with bail handles, in which to carry earth
and to store water or wastes later.

• A knife.

• A minimum of 300 ft of wire at least as
strong as clothesline wire. Second choice
would be 300 ft of rope, or (third choice) 8
double-bed sheets that could betorn into 1-ft-
wide strips and twisted slightly to serve as
rope. For each additional person beyond 5,
supply 20 ft of wire or rope or half a double-
bed sheet.

• Rainproof roofing materials — at least 2
square yards per person. Such materials as
plastic film, shower curtains, plastic table-
cloths or plastic mattress covers can be used.
These materials are essential for prolonged
shelter occupancy in rainy, cold weather.

• Fifteen double-bed sheets (or equal
square-yardage of other strong cloth or
plastic).

• Materials for building a ventilating
pump, a K AP 20 inches wide and 30 in. high.
(See Appendix B.)

• Containers for storing 15 gallons <
water per occupant. (See Chapter 8.)

B. Useful Materials and Tools

• Additional saws and shovels, chain sa
pick-mattock, hammer, hatchet.

• Kerosene, turpentine, or oil — to keep
hand-saw from sticking in gummy wood.

• A file.

• Two additional double-bed sheets p
person, or equivalent square-yardage
other equally strong fabric or plastic.

• A measuring tape, yardstick, or rule

• Old newspapers (about 15 pounds).

• A total of 30 square yards of rainpro ■
ing materials for the illustrated 5-pcrs<
shelter, and 3 square yards for each ads
tional person to be sheltered. (Even ft
plastic will serve to make a rainproof “burs
roof.”)

5. To save time and work, SHARPEN At
TOOLS AND KEEP THEM SHARP. o

6. Wear gloves from the start. Even tough ha ^
can blister and become painful and infected a
hours of digging and chopping.

7. Select a shelter location where there is little oib

chance of the ground being covered with w;ol
by a hard-rain. ill

8. If the building site is near the edge of a woods,
pick a site at least 40 ft from the nearest trees — to
avoid roots.

9. Clear off grass, weeds, etc., from the area where
you plan to build the shelter— this also will help
to avoid chiggers or ticks. Do not remove any
earth.

10. Stake out the entire shelter, locating the 6
required cribs. BE SURE TO MAKE THE
INSIDE LENGTH OE THE MAIN ROOM
EQUAL TO THE NUMBER OF PERSONS
TO BE SHELTERED MULTIPLIED BY l'/ 2
FT. The illustrated shelter is sized for 5 persons,
and the poles listed are those required for this
5-person shelter.

1 1. While some persons are staking out the shelter,
others should be cutting green poles and hauling
them to the site. Cut poles with tops no smaller
than the diameters specified. (Note: the specified
diameters do not include bark.)

12. Select poles with small-end diameters no more
than 50% larger than the specified minimum
diameters, to make handling of the long wall and
roof poles easier.

1 3. Sort the poles by length and diameter and lay all
poles of each size together, near the excavation.

14. Use larger trees and poles, up to 6 in. in diameter,
to make the 3‘2-ft-long end-poles of the cribs
(Fig. A.6). Do not use poles with small-end
diameters of less than 3 in. for the side-wall poles
of the cribs. For vertical brace-poles, use poles
with diameters of at least 2 in., cut off at the
height of the upper side of the uppermost
horizontal poles against which they are tied.

15. Be sure to cut off all limbs so that the poles are
quite smooth. Usually it is easier to drag
smoothed poles to the building site before cutting
them into the required lengths. Pull them by the
small, lighter ends.

1 6. Determine if there are enough long poles to make
the side-poles of the two cribs forming the sides
of the shelter room without splicing two shorter
poles together. If the shelter is being built for
more than 7 persons, it will require side poles that
are longer than 15 1 2 ft. Therefore, if a shelter for
more than 7 persons is being built, it would be
best to use 2 cribs placed end-to-end on each side
of the shelter room, instead of a single crib as
illustrated by Fig. A.6.

1 7. Place the lowermost four poles of each of the
cribs in their final positions, so that all the bases
of the crib-walls are in position on the ground.
Use the thicker, heavier poles at and near the
bottom of each crib. BE SURE THE ROOM IS
LONG ENOUGH TO PROVIDE l'/ 2 FT OF
ROOM LENGTH FOR EACH PERSON TO
BE SHELTERED.

18. To build each crib:

(1) Place two 3‘/2-ft end-poles on the ground.
Put two of the side-poles on top of the two
end-poles so that the ends of all four poles
extend 3 in. (no more) beyond where they
cross. The thicker poles should be used first
to add stability.

(2) Stack additional pairs of end-poles and side-
poles to form the crib, keeping each wall of
the crib vertical, until the tops of the
uppermost side-poles are at least 42 in. above
the ground. To keep the uppermost poles of
the crib about level while the crib is being
raised, alternate the large ends and small
ends of poles.

(3) Place a pair of small, vertical brace-poles in
each of the four corners of the crib. The tops
of the vertical brace-poles should be no
higher above the ground than the upper sides
of the crib’s uppermost horizontal poles.

(4) Tie each pair of vertical brace-poles together
tightly at bottom, middle, and top. For tying,
use 3-ft lengths of strong wire, rope, or
slightly twisted, foot-wide strips of cloth at
least as strong as cotton bed sheeting. Square
knots with back-up overhand knots are best,
but three overhand knots — one on top of the
other— will hold.

(5) If the crib is more than 8 ft long, place an
additional pair of vertical brace-poles, with
one in position at the outside center of each
long crib-wall. Tie this pair of vertical brace-
poles together permanently just above the
ground, but not yet in the middle or near the
top of the crib. Temporarily tie each of these
center vertical brace-poles to the uppermost
side-pole of the wall it touches.

(6) Line the crib with cloth or plastic film,
making sure that several inches of the lining
hangs over the uppermost poles. So that the
lining will not be pulled down when the crib
is being filled with earth, tie the upper edge of

the lining to the uppermost wall pole about
every 2 ft. First cut a small hole through
which to thread a tie-string or a 2-in. -wide
tie-strip of cloth. (If plenty of cloth and/or
plastic is available for lining the cribs, secure
the lining by simply wrapping a greater width
of the upper edge of the lining around the
uppermost crib wall-pole.)

(7) Permanently tie together the pair of vertical
center brace-poles, using horizontal ties at
their centers and just below the uppermost
horizontal wall-poles of the crib. Use the
strongest material you have for these
horizontal ties across the center of the crib.

(8) Excavate earth 10 ft or so beyond the outer
sides of the cribs. To save work, carry it in
buckets and dump it inside the cribs. (Two
children can carry a heavy bucket of earth by
running a strong, 4-ft stick through the bail
or handle of the bucket and tying the bail to
the center of the stick before lifting.) Save
earth closer to the cribs to put on the roof.

(9) Fill the lined crib with earth from which
almost all grass, roots, and the like have been
removed. Avoid placing hard lumps of earth
in contact with the lining. Fill the crib so that
the surface of the earth inside it is about 4 in.
above the upper sides of the uppermost
horizontal poles.

19. Line the narrow spaces between adjacent cribs
with cloth or plastic; then fill these spaces with
earth a little at a time, tamping repeatedly so as to
avoid leaving air spaces.

20. Place the 9-ft roof poles over the main room. (If
poles are unavailable and boards 1 ‘/j in. thick are
available, use two thicknesses of boards.) Use the
strongest roof poles (or double-thickness boards
nailed together) nearest the entryways. Then put
shorter. 5- or 6-ft poles or boards over the
entryways.

21. To keep earth from falling through the cracks
between the roof poles, put sticks in the larger
cracks and cover the roof with two or more thick-
nesses of cloth, plastic, or other material. News-
papers will do, if better materials are lacking.

22. Put earth on the roof to the depths shown for the
illustrated “buried roof.” Be sure to slope all sides
and smooth this gently mounded earth surface so
that the buried roof will shed water.

23. So that the earth cover near the outeredges of the
roof will be a full 2 ft thick, make the earth cover
slope steeply near the edges. Steep earth slopes
can be made and kept stable by using large lumps
of turf to make a steep bank, or by using earth-

filled “rolls” of cloth or other material along the
edges of a roof.

24. Put in place the waterproof material of the
buried roof.

25. Pile on the rest of the earth cover, as illustrated,
to at least a full 2-ft thickness.

26. Smooth the surface of the earth cover, including
the sides, so that rain will run off. Do not walk on
the finished roof.

27. To prevent rainwater on the ground outside from
running into the entryways, make mounds of
packed earth about 4 in. high across the entryway
floors. Make the mounds about 2 ft from the
outer ends of the floors. Dig a shallow drainage
ditch completely around the shelter.

28. Unless the weather is cold, install your shelter-
ventilating K.AP in the entry into which you can
feel air moving naturally. (If short of time or
materials, make a small Directional Fan.)

29. To prevent fallout or rain from falling onto the
floor of the outer entryways, place small awnings
(not illustrated) over the openings.

30. If time and energy are available, mound earth all
around the shelter. Doing so will reduce fire
hazards by covering flammable materials; it also
will increase fallout protection.

31. Fill all available water containers, including pits
which have been dug and lined with plastic, then
roofed with available materials. If possible,
disinfect all water stored in expedient containers,
using one scant teaspoon of a chlorine bleach,
such as Clorox, for each 10 gallons of water.
Even if only muddy water is available, store it. If
you do not have a disinfectant, it may be possible
to boil water when needed.

32. Put all of your emergency tools inside your
shelter.

33. As time and materials permit, continue to improve
your chances of surviving by doing as many of the
following things as possible:

( 1 ) Make a homemade fallout meter, as described
in Appendix C, and expedient lights.
(Prudent people will have made these
extremely useful items well ahead of
time.)

(2) Make and hang expedient bedsheet-hammocks.

(3) Install screens or mosquito netting over the
two openings, if mosquitoes or flies are a
problem. Remember, however, that screen or
netting reduces the air flow through a shelter

even when the air is pumped through with a
K.AP.

(4) Dig a stand-up hole near the far end of the
shelter. Make the hole about 15 in. in diameter
and deep enough to permit the tallest of the
shelter occupants to stand erect occasionally.

Fig. A.6. Aboveground, Crib-Walled Shelter.

Appendix B

How to Make and Use a Homemade
Shelter-Ventilating Pump, the KAP

I. THE NEED FOR SHELTER AIR PUMPS

In warm weather, large volumes of outside air
MUST be pumped through most fallout or blast
shelters if they are crowded and occupied fora day or
more. Otherwise, the shelter occupants’ body heat
and water vapor will raise the temperature-humidity
conditions to DANGEROUSLY high levels. If
adequate volumes of outdoor air are pumped
through typical belowground shelters in hot weather,
many times the number of persons could survive the
heat than otherwise could survive in these same
shelters without adequate forced ventilation. Even-in
cold weather, about 3 cubic feet per minute (3 cfm) of
outdoor air usually should be pumped through
shelters, primarily to keep the carbon dioxide
exhaled by shelter occupants from rising to harmful
concentrations.

The KAP (Kearny Air Pump) is a practical, do-
it-yourself device for pumping adequate volumes of
cooling air through shelters — with minimum work.
The following instructions have been improved
repeatedly after being used by dozens of small groups
to build KAPs— including families, pairs of house-
wives, and children. None of these inexpert builders
had previously heard of this kind of pump, yet almost
all groups succeeded in making one in less than 4
hours after assembling the materials. Their successes
prove that almost anyone, if given these detailed and
thoroughly tested instructions, can build a ser-
viceable, large-volume air pump of this simple type,
using only materials and tools found in most
American homes.

If possible, build a KAP large enough to pump
through your shelter at least 40 cubic feet per minute

(40 cfm) of outdoor air for each shelter occupant. If
40 cfm of outdoor air is pumped through a shelter
and distributed within it as specified below, even
under heat-wave conditions the effective temperature
of the shelter air will not be more than 2°F higher
than the effective temperature outdoors. (The
effective temperature is a measure of air’s effects on
people due to its heat, humidity, and velocity.) The
36-inch-high by 29-inch-wide KAP described in these
instructions, if used as specified, will pump at least
1000 cfm of outside air through a shelter that has the
airflow characteristics outlined in these instructions.

If more than 25 persons might be expected to
occupy a shelter during hot weather, then it is
advisable to build a larger KAP. The 72-inch-high by
29-inch-wide model described can pump between
4000 and 5000 cfm.

To maintain tolerable temperature-humidity
conditions for people in your shelter during hot
weather, you must:

® Pump enough outdoor air all the way through
the shelter (40 cfm for each occupant in very hot,
humid weather).

• Distribute the air evenly within the shelter. If the
KAP that pumps air through the shelter does not
create air movement that can be felt in all parts of the
shelter in hot weather, one or more additional KAPs
will be needed to circulate the air and gently fan the
occupants.

• Encourage the shelter occupants to wear as little
clothing as practical when they are hot. (Sweat
evaporates and cools best on bare skin.)

• Supply the occupants with adequate water and
salt. For prolonged shelter occupancy under heat-
wave conditions in a hot part of the country, about 4
quarts of drinking water and '/j ounce (1 tablespoon)
of salt per person are required every 24 hours,
including salt in food that is eaten. Normal American
meals supply about '/« ounce of salt daily. Salt taken
in addition to that in food should be dissolved in the
drinking water.

• Pump outdoor air through your shelter day and
night in warm weather, so that both the occupants
and the shelter are cooled off at night.

Almost all pf the danger from fallout is caused by
radiation from visible fallout particles of heavy, sand-
like or flakey material. The air does not become
radioactive due to the radiation continuously given off
by fallout particles.

The visible fallout particles rapidly “fall out” of
slow moving air. The air that a KAP pumps through
a shelter moves at a low speed and could carry into
the shelter only a very small fraction of the fallout
particles that cause the radiation hazard outside. This
fraction, usually not dangerous, can be further
reduced if occupants take the simple precautions
described in these instructions.

CAUTION

Before anyone starts to build this unusual type
of air pump, ALL WORKERS SHOULD READ
THESE INSTRUCTIONS AT LEAST UP TO
SECTION V, INSTALLATION. Otherwise, mis-
takes may be made and work may be divided
inefficiently.

When getting ready to build this pump, all
workers should spend the first half-hour studying
these instructions and getting organized. Then, after
materials are assembled, two inexperienced persons
working together should be able to complete the 3-
foot model described in the following pages in less
than 4 hours. To speed up completion, divide the
work; for example, one person can start making the
flaps while another begins work on the pump frame.

II. HOW A KAP WORKS

As can be seen in Figs. I and 2, a KAP operates
by being swung like a pendulum. It is hinged at the
top of its swinging frame. When this air pump is
pulled by a cord as illustrated, its flaps are closed by
air pressure and it pushes air in front of it and “sucks”

ORNL-DWG 66- 12320 A

Fig. 1. Section through the upper part of a
doorway, showing operation of a KAP.

ORNL-DWG 66-12319A

Fig. 2. KAP in doorway (with flaps open during
its return stroke).

air in back of it. Thus a KAP pumps air through the
opening in which it swings. This is the power stroke.
During its power stroke, the pump’s flaps are closed
against its flap-stop wires or strings, which are
fastened across the face of the frame.

When a KAP swings freely back as a pendulum
on its return stroke, all its flaps are opened by air

pressure. The pumped air stream continues to flow in
the direction in which it has been accelerated by the
power stroke, while the Dump itself swings in the
opposite direction (see Fig. 2). Thus the flaps are
one-way valves that operate to force air to flow in one
direction, where desired.

The KAP can be used: (1) to supply outdoor air
to a shelter, (2) to distribute air within a shelter,
and/or to fan the occupants.

1. To force outdoor air through a shelter, an air-
supply KAP usually is operated as an air-intake
pump by pulling it with a cord (see Fig. 1). (Only
rarely is it necessary to operate a KAP as an air-
exhaust pump by pushing it with a pole, as described
in the last section of these instructions.)

2. To distribute air within a shelter and/or to
fan the occupants, air-distribution KAPs may be
hung overhead and operated as described later.

III. INSTRUCTIONS FOR BUILDING A KAP

In this section, instructions are given for making
a KAP 36 inches high and 29 inches wide, to operate
efficiently when swinging in a typical home basement
doorway 30 inches wide. If your doorway or other
ventilation opening is narrower or wider than 30
inches, you should make your KAP 1 inch narrower
than the narrowest opening in which you plan to
install it. Regardless of the size of the KAP you plan
to build, first study the instructions for making the
36 X 29-inch model.

In Section VII you will find brief instructions for
making a narrower and even simpler KAP, one more
suitable for the narrow openings of small trench
shelters and other small expedient shelters. Section
VIII covers large KAPs, for large shelters.

A. Materials Needed for a KAP
36 inches High by 29 inches Wide

The preferred material is listed as first (1st)
choice, and the less-preferred materials are listed as
(2nd), (3rd), and (4th) choices. It is best to assemble,
spread out, and check all your materials before
beginning to build.

1. The pump frame and its Fixed support:

• Boards for the frame:

(1st) 22 ft of 1 X 2-in. boards. (A nominal
1 X 2-in. board actually measures about

% X l-% in., but the usual, nominal dimen-
sions will be given throughout these instruc-
tions.) Also, 6 ft of 1 X 1 -in. boards. Soft wood
is better.

(2nd) Boards of the same length that have
approximately the same dimensions as 1 X 2-
in. and 1 X I -in. lumber.

(3rd) Straight sticks or metal strips that
can be cut and fitted to make a flat-faced KAP
frame.

• Hinges: (1st) Door or cabinet butt-hinges; (2nd)
metal strap-hinges; (3rd) improvised hinges made of
leather, woven straps, cords, or 4 eyescrews which
can be joined to make 2 hinges. (Screws are best for
attaching hinges. If nails are used, they should go
through the board and their ends should be bent over
and clinched — flattened against the surface of the
board.)

• A board for the fixed horizontal support: (1st) A
I X 4-in. board that is at least 1 ft longer than the
width of the opening in which you plan to swing your
pump; (2nd) A wider board.

• Small nails (at least 24): (1st) No. 6 box nails,
about l /2 in. longer than the thickness of the two
boards, so their pointed ends can be bent over and
clinched); (2nd) other small nails.

2. The flaps (See Figs. 1, 2, 6, 7, and 8):

• Plastic film or other very light, flexible materi-
al— 12 square feet in pieces that can be cut into 9
rectangular strips, each 30 X 5 l /2 in.: (1st) polyeth-
ylene film 3 or 4 mils thick (3 or 4 one-thousandths of
an inch); (2nd) 2-mil polyethylene from large trash
bags; (3rd) tough paper.

• Pressure-sensitive waterproof tape, enough to
make 30 ft of tape 3 U in. to 1 in. wide, for securing the
hem-tunnels of the flaps: (1st) cloth duct tape (silver
tape); (2nd) glass tape; (3rd) scotch tape; (4th) freezer
or masking tape, or sew the hem tunnels. (Do not use
a tape that stretches: it may shrink afterward and
cause the flaps to wrinkle.)

3. The flap pivot-wires:

(1st) 30 ft of smooth wire at least as heavy and
springy as coat hanger wire, that can be made into
very straight pieces each 29 in. long (nine all-wire
coat hangers will supply enough); (2nd) 35 ft of
somewhat thinner wire, including light, flexible
insulated wire; (3rd) 35 ft of smooth string, preferably
nylon string about the diameter of coat hanger wire.

1X2-in. FRAME

ORNl OWG 71-7005

4. The pull cord:

(1st) At least 10 ft of cord; (2nd) strong string;
(3rd) flexible, light wire.

5. The flap-stops:

• ( 1 st) 150 ft of light string; ( 2 nd) 150 ft of light,
smooth wire; (3rd) 150 ft of very strong thread; (4th)
600 ft of ordinary thread, to provide 4 threads for
each stop-flap.

• (1st) 90 tacks (not thumbtacks); (2nd) 90 small
nails. (Tacks or nails are desirable but not essential,
since the flap-stops can be tied to the frame.)

B. Tools

A hammer, saw, wirecutter pliers, screwdriver,
scissors, knife, yardstick, and pencil are desirable.
However, only a strong, sharp knife is essential for
making some models.

C. Building a KAP 36 inches High by 29 inches Wide

A 36 X 29-in. KAP is most effective if operated in
an air-intake or exhaust opening about 40 in. high
and 30 in. wide. (If your shelter might have more than
25 occupants in hot weather, read all these
instructions so you will understand how to build a
larger pump, briefly described in Section VIII.)

NOTE THAT THE WIDTHS AND THICK-
NESSES OF ALL FRAME PIECES ARE EXAG-
GERATED IN ALL ILLUSTRATIONS.

I . The frame

a. Cut two pieces of 1 X 2-in. boards, each 36 in.
long, and two pieces of 1 X 2-in. boards, each 29 in.
long; then nail them togetherfsee Fig. 3). Use nails
that do not split the wood, preferably long enough to
go through the boards and stick out about ’/2 in. on
the other side. (To nail in this manner, first put blocks
under the frame so that the nail points will not strike
the floor.) Bend over nail points which go through.

NAIL HEADS

NOTE:

ALL WOOD FOR FRAME
IS CUT FROM 1X2 in.
EXCEPT 1X1 in. CENTER
BRACE

1X1 in. CENTER BRACE

Fig. 3. KAP frame (looking at the back side of
the frame).

b. To make the front side smooth and flat so
that the flaps will close tightly, fill in the spaces as
follows: Cut two pieces of 1 X 2-in. boards long
enough to fill in the spaces on top of the 36-in. sides of
the frame between the top and bottom horizontal
boards, and nail these filler boards In place. Do the
same thing with a 1 X 1 -in. board (or a board the size
of that used for the center brace) as a filler board for
the center brace (see Fig. 4).

If the frame is made of only one thickness of
board 3 / 4 in. to 1 in. thick, it will not be sufficiently
heavy to swing back far enough on its free-swinging
return stroke.

Xext , cut and nail to the frame a piece of \ X \ -in .
lumber 36 in. long, for a center vertical brace. (If you
lack time to make or to find a 1 X 1-in. board, use a
I X 2-in. board.) Figure 3 shows the back side of the
frame; the flap valves will be attached on the front
(the opposite) side.

2. The hinges

Ordinary door butt-hinges are
best. So that the pump can swing
past the horizontal position, the
hinges should be screwed onto the
front of the frame, at its top. in the
positions shown in Fig. 4. (Pick
one of the 29-in. boards and call it
the top.) If you do not have a drill
for drilling a screw hole, you can
make a hole by driving a nail and
then pulling it out. Screw' the
screw into the nail hole.

S'

3. The pivot-wires and flaps

a. Make 9 flap pivot-w'ires. If you have smooth,
straight wire as springy and thick as coat hanger wire,
use it to make nine 29-in.-long straight lengths of
w ire. If not. use wire from all-wire coat hangers or use
strings. First, cut off ail of the hook portion of each
coat hanger, including the twisted part. If you have
only ordinary pliers, use the cutter to “bite” the wire
all around: it will break at this point if bent there.
Next, straighten each wire carefully. Straighten all
the bends so that each wire is straight within '/■» in., as
compared to a straight line. Proper straightening
takes 1 to 5 minutes per wire. To straighten,
repeatedly grasp the bent part of the wire with pliers
in slightly different spots, each time bending the wire
a little with your other hand. Then cut each wire to a
29-in. length. Finally, bend no more than '/2 in. of
each end at a right angle and in the same plane — that
is. in directions so that all parts of the bent wire will
lie flat against a smooth surface. The bent ends are for
secure attachment later (see Fig. 8).

b. Make 9 polyethylene flaps that will be the
hinged valves of the K.AP. First cut 9 strips.

making each strip 30 in. long by 5*/2-in. wide (see
Fig. 5). To cut plastic flaps quickly and accurately,
cut a long strip of plastic 30 in. wide. Then cut off a
flap in this way: (1) draw a cutting guideline on a
wide board 5 1 /2 in. from an edge; (2) place the
30-in. -wide plastic strip so that it lies on this board,
with one of the strip’s side edges just reaching the
edge of the board; (3) place a second board over

ORNL OWC 71-7004A

the plastic on the first board, with a straight edge
of this second upper board over the guideline on
the lower board; and finally (4) cut off a flap by
running a sharp knife along the straight edge of the
upper board.

To form a hem along one of the 30-in. sides of
a 5‘/2 X 30-in. rectangular strip, fold in a 1-in. hem.
This makes the finished flap 4*/2 in. wide.

To hold the folded hem while taping it, paper
clips or another pair of hands are helpful. For each
hem, use two pieces of pressure-sensitive tape, each
about 1 in. wide and 16 in. long. Or make the hem
by sewing it very close to the cut edge to form a
hem-tunnef(see Fig. 5).

After the hem has been made, cut a notch with
scissors in each hemmed corner of the flap (Figs. 6
and 8). Avoid cutting the tape holding the hem.
Each notch should extend downward about */2 in.
and should extend horizontally from the outer edge
of the flap to ’/ 4 in. inside the inner side of the
frame, when the flap is positioned on the frames as
shown in Fig. 6.

ORNL-DWG 66-^2324

Also cut a notch in the center of the flap
(along the hem line) extending */ 2 in. downward
and extending horizontally l /4 in. beyond each of
the two sides of the vertical brace (see Fig. 6). The
notch MUST be wider than the brace. [However, if
you are building a pump using wire netting for
flap-stops (see Fig. 13), then do NOT cut a notch in
the center of each flap.]

c. Take the 9 pieces of straightened wire and
insert one of them into and through the hem-tunnel

of each flap, like a curtain rod running through the
hem of a curtain. Check to see that each flap
swings freely on its pivot-wire, as illustrated by Fig.
7. Also see Fig. 8.

ORNL-DWG 66- <2 32 5

END OF PIVOT-WIRE (THAT

OftNl DWG 71-7O05A

199

d. Put aside the flaps and their pivot-wires for
use after you have attached the flap-stops and the
hinges to the frame, as described below.

e. Using the ruler printed on the edge of this
page, mark the positions of each pivot-wire (the
arrowheads numbered 0, 3%, l l U in.) and the
position of each flap-stop (the four marks between
each pair of numbered arrowheads on this ruler).
All of these positions should be marked both on
the vertical sides of the 36-in. -long boards of the
frame and on the vertical brace. Mark the position
of the uppermost pivot-wire (the “0” arrowhead on
this ruler) 1 * in. below the top board to which the
hinges have been attached (see Figs. 9 and 10).

ORNL DWG 71 -7006 A

ORNL- DWG 66-<2?28A

Fig. 10.

4. The flap-stops

So that the flaps may swing open on only one
side of the frame (on its front, or face), you must
attach horizontal flap-stops made of strings or
wires across the face of the frame. (See Figs. 10 and
1 1.) Nail or tie four of these flap-stops between the
marked points where each pair of the horizontal
pivot-wires for the flaps will be placed. Be careful
not to connect any flap-stops in such a way that
they cross the horizontal open spaces in which you
later will attach the flap pivot-wires.

ORNL -DWG 71 -7007 A

Fig. 11. Positions of pivot-wires and flap-stops.

If you have tacks (NOT thumbtacks) or very small
nails, drive three in a horizontal line to attach each
flap-stop— one in each of the two vertical 36-in. sides of
the frame and one in the vertical center brace (see
Fig. 1 1). First, drive all of these horizontal lines of
tacks about three-quarters of the way into the
boards. Then, to secure the flap-stop string or thin
wire quickly to a tack, wind the string around the
tack and immediately drive the tack tightly into the
frame to grip the string (see Fig. 11).

If you have no tacks or nails, cut notches or
slots where the flap-stops are to be attached. Cut
these notches in the edges of the vertical sides of
the frame and in an edge of the center brace. Next,
secure the flap-stops (strings or wires) by tying each

O r *~

3/^ in. 3/»in. 3 /»in. 3 Ain. 3 5 /ein. 7 'Ain.

RULER FOR MARKING POSITIONS OF FLAP PIVOT- WIRES AND FLAP- STOPS

ORNL-OWG 66-<2330AR

one in its notched position. This tying should
include wrapping each horizontal flap-stop once
around the vertical center brace. The stops should
be in line with (in the same plane as) the front of
the frame. Do not stretch flap-stops too tightly, or
you may bend the frame.

5. Final assembly

a. Staple, nail, or tie the 9 flap pivot-wires or
pivot-strings (each with its flap attached) in their
positions at the marked 3 5 /8-in. spacings. Start with
the lowest flap and work upward (see Fig. 11).
Connect each pivot-wire at both ends to the 36-in.
vertical sides of the frame. Also connect it to the
vertical brace. BE CAREFUL TO NAIL THE
PIVOT-WIRES ONLY TO THE FRAME AND
THE BRACE. DO NOT NAIL ANY PLASTIC
DIRECTLY TO THE WOOD. All flaps must turn
freely on their pivot-wires.

If any flap, when closed, overlaps the flap
below it by more than 1 in., trim off the excess so
that it overlaps by only 1 in.

b. Screw (or nail, if screws are not available)
the upper halves of the hinges onto the horizontal
support board on which the KAP will swing. (A
l-in.-thick board is best, 3'/2 in. wide and at least
12 in. longer than the width of the doorway or
other opening in which this KAP is to be installed.)

Be careful to attach the hinges in the UNusual ,
OUT-OF-LINE POSITION shown in Fig. 12.

CAUTIONS: Do NOT attach a KAP’s hinges
directly to the door frame. If you do, the hinges
will be torn loose on its return stroke or on its
power stroke.

If you are making a KAP to fit into a
rectangular opening, make, its frame 4 in.
SHORTER than the height of its opening and 1 in.
NARROWER than the width of the opening.

c. For this 3-ft model, tie the pull-cord to the
center brace about 12'/2 in. below the hinge line, as
shown in Fig. 12. (If you tie it lower, your arm
movements will waste energy.) Use small nails or
wire to keep the tie end from slipping up or down
on the center brace. (For a more durable
connection, see Fig. 22.)

Cut a slot in the flap above the connection of
the pull-cord to the vertical brace, deep enough so
that this flap will close completely when the KAP is
being pulled. Tape the end and edges of the slot.

IV. MORE RAPID CONSTRUCTION

(Skip this section if you cannot easily get
chicken wire and ‘/A-m.-thick boards.)

If chicken wire and boards about */* in. thick
are available, use the chicken wire for flap-stops.
By using these materials, the time required to build
a given KAP can be reduced by about 40%.
One-inch woven mesh is best. (Hardware cloth has
sharp points and is unsatisfactory.)

Figure 13 illustrates how the mesh wire should
be stapled to the KAP frame. Next, unless the KAP
is wider than 3 ft, the front of the whole frame
(except for the center brace) should be covered with
thin boards approximately '/ 2 in. thick, such as
laths. Then the pivot-wires, with their flaps on
them, should be stapled onto the '/t-in.-thick
boards. This construction permits the flaps to turn
freely in front of the chicken-wire flap-stops.

With this design, the center of each pivot-wire
should NOT be connected to the center brace, nor
should the center of the flap be notched. However,
pivot-wires that are attached this way must be
made and held straighter than pivot-wires used
with flap-stops made of straight strings or wires.

ORNL-DWG 66-12333A

Fig. 13. Flaps attached % inch in front of
chicken wire used for flap-stops.

Note in Fig. 13 that each pivot-wire is held firm
and straight by 2 staples securing each end. The
wire used should be at least as springy as coat
hanger wire. If string is used instead of wire, nylon
cord about the diameter of coat hanger wire is best
for the pivot-strings.

If the KAP is wider than 3 ft, its center vertical
brace should also be covered with a ‘/ 4 -in. -thick
board, and each pivot-wire should be attached to it.
Furthermore, the center of each flap should be
notched.

V. INSTALLATION AND ACCESSORIES
A. Minimum Open Spaces Around a KAP

To pump its maximum volume, an air-supply
KAP with good metal hinges should be installed in
its opening so that it swings only about 'U in. above
the bottom of the opening and only '/a in. to 1 in.
from the sides of the opening.

B. Adequately Large Air Passageways

When using a KAP as an air-supply pump to
force air through a shelter, it is essential to provide
a low-resistance air passageway all the way through
the shelter structure from an outdoor air-intake
opening for outdoor air to a separate air-exhaust
opening to the outdoors (see Fig. 14).

Fig. 14.

A low-resistance air passageway is one that is
no smaller in cross-sectional area than half the size
of the KAP pumping the air. For example, a
36 X 29-in. KAP should have a passageway no
smaller than about 3 V 2 sq. ft. An air-supply KAP of
this size will force at least 1000 cubic feet per
minute (1000 cfm) through a shelter having such
openings, if it is installed as illustrated in Fig. 14.

If smaller air passageways or air-exhaust
openings are provided, the volume of air pumped
will be greatly reduced. For example, if the
air-exhaust opening is only 1% sq. ft C/a the size of
this KAP), then this KAP will pump only about
500 cfm. And if the air-exhaust opening is only a
6 X 6-in. exhaust duct (% sq. ft), then this same
36 X 29-in. KAP will pump only about 50 cubic
feet per minute. This would not provide enough
outdoor air for more than one shelter occupant in a
well-insulated shelter under heat-wave conditions in
the hottest humid parts of the United States. In
contrast, when the weather is freezing cold and the
shelter itself is still cold enough to absorb the heat
produced by the shelter occupants, this same
6 X 6-in. exhaust duct and the air-intake doorway
will cause about 50 cfm of outdoor air to flow by
itself through the shelter without using any pump.
The reason: body heat warms the shelter air, and
the warm air rises if cold air can flow in to replace
it. Under these cold conditions — provided the air is
distributed evenly throughout the shelter by KAP

or otherwise — 50 cfm is enough outdoor air for
about 17 people.

To provide adequately large air passageways
for air-supply KAPs used to ventilate shelters in
buildings, in addition to opening and closing doors
and windows, it may be necessary to build large
ducts (as described below). Breaking holes in
windows, ceilings, or walls is another way to make
large, efficient air passageways.

Figure 15 illustrates how a 3-ft KAP can be
used as a combined air-supply and air-distribution
pump to adequately ventilate a small underground
shelter that has an exhaust opening too small to
provide enough ventilation in warm weather. (A
similar installation can be used to ventilate a
basement room having only one opening, its
doorway.) Note how, by installing a “divider” in
the doorway and entryway, the single entryway is
converted into a large air-intake duct and a
separate, large air-exhaust duct. To obtain the
maximum increased volume of fresh outdoor air
that can be pumped through the shelter — a total of
about 1000 cfm for a 36 X 29-in. KAP — the divider
should extend about 4 ft horizontally into the
shelter room, as shown in Fig. 15. The 6 ft at the
end of the divider (the almost-horizontal part under
the KAP) can be made of plywood, provided it is
installed so that it can be taken out of the way in a
few seconds.

ORNL DWG 72-6630

VENTILATION DUCT
/ THAT IS TOO SMALL IN
/ WARM WEATHER

ENTRYWAY DIVIDER
(PLASTIC OR CLOTH)

V

FALLOUT ROOF (PLASTIC
OR CLOTH) ON RIDGEPOLE

"WALL" ALL AROUND
ENTRYWAY

EARTH ON BOTTOM

OF “WALL"

STAKE SUPPORTING 2-ft-HIGH
"WALL" OF PLASTIC OR CLOTH
AROUND VERTICAL ENTRYWAY

3-ft KAP IN \

DOORWAY 1

Fig. 15. Ventilating a shelter when the air- exhaust opening is too small.

"PULLEY" FOR 3-ft KAP IN
6-ft DIVIDED DOORWAY

Note how the entry of fallout into a shelter can
be minimized by covering the entryway with a “roof'
and by forcing the slow-moving entering air to rise
over an obstruction (the “wall”) before it flows into
the shelter. The sand-like fallout particles fall to the
ground outside the “wall.”

C. Adequate Distribution of
Air Within the Shelter

To make sure that each shelter occupant gets a
fair share of the outdoor air pumped through the
shelter, air-distribution KAPs should be used inside
most large shelters. These KAPs are used within the
shelter, separate from and in addition to air-supply
KAPs (see Fig. 16). Air-distribution KAPs can serve
in place of both air-distribution ducts and cooling
fans. For these purposes, one or more 3-ft-high KAPs
hung overhead from the shelter ceiling are usually
most practical. If KAPs cannot readily be hung from
the ceiling, they can be supported on light frames
made of boards or metal, somewhat like those used
for a small child’s swing.

ORNL DWG 72-7547

Fig. 16. The use of air-distribution KAPs.

You should make and use enough KAPs to
cause air movement that can be felt in all parts of
your shelter. Remember that if KAPs are installed
near the floor and the shelter is fully occupied, the
occupants' bodies will partially block the pumped
airflow more than if the same KAPs were suspended
overhead.

As a general rule, for shelters having more than
about 20 occupants, provide one 3-ft air-distribution

KAP for every 25 occupants. In relatively wide
shelters, these interior KAPs should be positioned so
that they produce an airflow that circulates around
the shelter, preventing the air that is being pumped
into the shelter from flowing directly to the exhaust
opening. Figure 16 illustrates how four KAPs can be
used in this way to distribute the air within a shelter
and to fan the 100 occupants of a lOOO-sq.-ft shelter
room. Avoid positioning an air-distribution KAP so
that it pumps air in a direction greater than a right
angle turn from the direction of airflow (o the
location of the KAP.

D. Operation with a Pulley

A small KAP — especially one with improvised
hinges or one installed at head-height or higher — can
be pulled most efficiently by running its pull-cord
over a pulley or over a greased homemade “pulley”
such as described in Figs. 17 and 18. A pulley should
be hung at approximately the same height as the
hinges of the KAP, as illustrated in Fig. 15. To make

ORNL DWG 71-7242

WIDE - ANGLED FORKED LIMB.

Fig. 17.

ORNL DWG 71-7243

ORNL DWG 72-6365A

Fig. 18.

a comfortable hand-hold on which to pull down-
ward, tie two or three overhand knots in a strip of
cloth on the end of the pull-cord.

(Such a “pulley” can also be used to operate a
bail-bucket to remove water or wastes from some
shelters, without anyone having to go outside.)

E. Quick-Removal Brackets

The air-supply KAP that pumps air through
your shelter is best held in its pumping position by
mounting it in homemade quick-removal brackets
(see Fig. 19) for the following reasons:

• A KAP provided with quick-removal brackets
can be taken down easily and kept out of the way of
persons passing through its doorway when it is not in
use. It can be kept in a place where people are unlikely
to damage it.

• By installing two sets of quick-removal brackets
in opposite shelter openings, you can quickly reverse
the direction in w'hich the KAP pumps air, to take

STOP-BLOCKS TO PREVENT HORIZONTAL

Fig. 19. Quick-removal bracket for KAP.

advantage of changes in the direction of natural
airflow through the shelter.

• If the KAP is installed on quick-removal
brackets, in an emergency a person standing beside
the KAP could grasp its frame with both hands, lift it
upward a few inches to detach it, and carry it out of
the way- 7 -all in 3 to 5 seconds. Being able to move the
KAP quickly could prevent blast winds from
wrecking the pump, which might also be blown into
your shelter — possibly injuring occupants. In exten-
sive areas where fallout shelters and their occupants
would survive the blast effects of typical large
warheads, more than 4 seconds would elapse between
the time shelter occupants would see the extremely
bright light from the explosion and the arrival of a
blast wave strong enough to wreck a KAP or other
pumps left exposed in a ventilation opening.

Note in Fig. 19 that the KAP’s “fixed” support-
board (a 3'/2-in.-wide board to which its hinges are
attached) is held in a bracket only 2 inches deep. To
prevent too tight a fit in the bracket, be sure to place a
/ 32 -in. shim or spacer (the cardboard back of a
writing tablet will do) between two boards of the
bracket, as illustrated. Also, make spaces about '/ 16
inches wide between the lower inner corners of the
stop-blocks and the sides of the outer board. To
prevent your hands from being cut, you should put
tape over the exposed ends of wires near the frame’s
outer edges of a KAP that you want to be able to
remove rapidly.

In a small expedient shelter, a small KAP can be
quickly jerked loose if its "fixed” support-board is
attached to the roof with only a few small nails.

VI. OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE

A. Pumping

Operate your 3-foot KAP by pulling it with an
easy, swinging motion of your arm. To pump the
maximum volume of air, you should pull the KAP
toward you until its frame swings out to an almost-
horizontal position. Then quickly move your hand so
that the pull-cord is kept slack during the entire, free-
swinging return stroke. Figure 24 in Section VIII,
LARGE KAPs, illustrates this necessary motion.

Be sure to provide a comfortable hand-hold on
the pull-cord (see Fig. 14). Blisters can be serious
under unsanitary conditions.

To pull a KAP via an overhead pulley with
minimum effort, sit down and pull as if you were
tolling a bell — except that you should raise your hand
quickly with the return stroke and keep it raised long
enough so that the pull-cord remains slack during the
entire return stroke. Or, if the pulley is not overhead,
operate the KAP by swinging your extended arm
back and forth from the shoulder.

B. Placement to Take Advantage of the
Natural Direction of Air Flow

A KAP can pump more air into a shelter if it is
installed so that it pumps air through the shelter in
the direction in which the air naturally flows. Since
this direction can be reversed by a wind change
outdoors, it is desirable to provide a way to quickly
remove your pump and reposition it so that air can be
pumped in the opposite direction. This can be done in
several ways, including making one set of quick-
removal brackets for one air opening and a second set
for the other.

C. Maintenance

To operate your KAP efficiently, keep the flaps
in good repair and make sure that there is the
minimum practical area of open spaces in and around
the KAP through which air can flow back around the
pump frame, opposite to the pumped direction. So
keep at least some extra flap material in your shelter,
along with some extra tape and the few tools you may
need to make repairs.

VII. NARROW KAPs AND SMALL KAPs
A. Narrow KAPs

To swing efficiently in an entrance or emergency
exit of an expedient trench shelter that is 22 in. wide,
a KAP is best made 20 in. wide and 36 in. high. One of
less height is not as efficient as a 36-in.-high model
and has to be pulled uncomfortably fast. So, when
ventilation openings can be selected or made at least
38 in. high, make your pump 36 in. high.

In a narrow trench shelter, it is best to have the
pull-cord run the full length of the trench, along the
trench wall that occupants will face when sitting.
Then each occupant can take a turn pulling the pump
without having to change seats.

Good metal hinges on a narrow' KAP allow it to
swing properly if pulled with the pull-cord attached
to one side of the frame. (Pumps with improvised
hinges and large pumps must be pulled from a
connection point on their center vertical brace to
make them swing properly.) Therefore, if you have
small metal hinges and need a KAP no wider than 20
inches, build a rectangular frame without a vertical
center brace. Make two pull-cord attachment points,
one on each side of the frame and each 9 inches below
the top of the frame. (Fora small KAP, a satisfactory
attachment point can readily be made by driving two
nails so that their heads cross, and wiring them
together.) Then if a change in wind direction outside
causes the direction of natural air flow in the trench
to become opposite to the direction in which air is
being pumped, you can move your KAP to the
opening at the other end of the trench. The pull-cord
can easily be connected to the other side of the frame,
and convenient pumping can be resumed quickly.

So that the horizontal support board can be
nailed easily to the roofing poles or boards of an entry
trench, it is best to use cabinet hinges. Screw them
onto an edge of the support board, in the LiN.usual,
OUT-OF-LINE POSITION shown in Fig. 20. This
hinge connection allows the pump to swing a full 1 80
degrees. To facilitate moving the horizontal support
board, connect it to the roof with a few small nails, so
that it can be pulled loose easily and quickly.

ORNL-DWG 78 -10358

ROOF POLES

Fig. 20.

B. Small KAPs

If the only available opening in which a K AP can
be installed is small, build a RAP to fit it. Use
narrower boards to make the frame and make the
flaps of thinner material, such as the polyethylene of
large plastic trash bags. For pumps 24 inches or less
in height, make the finished flaps only 3 /2 inches
wide and space their pivot-wires 3 inches apart. The
flaps should overlap no more than V 2 inch. A RAP 24
inches high will pump enough outdoor air for only a
few people, except in cold weather.

Small, yet efficient KAPs can be made even if the
only materials available are straight sticks about 1 '/ 4
inches in diameter, strips of cloth to tie the frame
together and to make the hinges and the pull cord,
polyethylene film from large trash bags for the flaps,
freezer or duct tape (or needle and thread) to make
the flap hems, coat hanger wire or string for the pivot-
wire, and string or ordinary thread for the flap-stops.
A sharp knife is the only essential tool. Figure 21
shows a way to easily tie sticks securely together and
to attach strings or threads for stop-flaps, when small
nails and tacks are not available. The flap-stop
strings or threads should be secured by wrapping
them several times around each stick to which they
are attached, so they will be gripped by the out-of-line
knife cuts.

ORNL-DWG 78-21897

Fig. 21. Sticks ready to be tied together to make
a RAP frame.

VIII. LARGE KAPs

A. Construction

A 6-ft-high by 29-in.-wide model can be
constructed in the same way as a 3-ft model — except
that it should have both horizontal and vertical
center braces (1 X 2-in. boards are best). To increase
the strength of a 6-ft KAP, all parts of its double-
thickness frame and its vertical center brace should
be made of two thicknesses of 1 X 2-in. softwood
boards, securely held together with clinched nails.
Also, to increase the distance that the pump will
swing back by itself during its return stroke, it is
worthwhile to attach a 6-ft piece of 1 X 2-in. board
(not illustrated) to the back of each side of the frame.
Do NOT attach weights to the bottom of the frame;
this would slow down the pumping rate.

This 6-ft-high pump requires 18 flaps, each the
same size as those of the 36-in.-high KAP. The flaps
on the lower part of a large KAP must withstand hard
use. If 1 2-in. -wide strips of tape arc attached along
the bottom and side edges of these lower flaps, then
even flaps made of ordinary 4-mil polyethylene will
remain serviceable for over 1000 hours of pumping.
However, the lower flaps of large KAPs can
advantageously be made of 6-mil polyethylene. The
width and spacing of all flaps should be the same as
those of the 36-in.-high model.

The pull-cord should be attached to the vertical
center brace of a 6-ft KAP about I6V2 in. below the
hinge line. A 3 i 6 -in. nylon cord is ideal.

To adequately ventilate and cool very large and
crowded shelters in buildings, mines, or caves, KAPs
larger than 72 X 29 in. should be used. You can take
better advantage of large doorways, elevator shaft
openings, etc., by “tailor-making” each large air-
supply KAP to the size of its opening — that is, by
making it as large as is practical. The frame and brace
members should be appropriately strengthened, and
one or more “Y” bridles should be provided, as
described in the section below'. A 7-ft-high X 5’/2-ft-
wide KAP, with a 1 4-in. -diameter pull-cord attached
18 in. below its hinge line, and with two "Y” bridles
for its two operators, pumped air at the rate of over
1 1 .000 cubic ft per minute through a large basement
shelter during tests.

To make a durable connection of the pull-cord
to the center vertical brace: (1) Attach a wire loop
(Fig. 22) about 16 l /a in. below the hinge line. This
loop can be made of coat hanger wire and should go
around the center vertical brace. This fixed loop
should be kept from slipping on the center brace by
bending four 6-penny nails over it in front as
illustrated, and two smaller nails in back. (2) Make a
free-turning, triple-wire loop connected to the fixed
loop. (3) Cover part of the free-turning loop with tape
and tie the pull-cord to this loop. Tie the pull-cord
tightly over the taped part.

ORNL DWG 72-8204

Fig. 22.

B. Operation of Larger KAPs

A larger KAP can be pulled most easily by
providing it with a “Y” bridle (see Fig. 23) attached to
the end of its pull-cord.

0«WI OWG 7! 8069

Fig. 23. Y-bridle for pull-cord on KAP.

A man of average size and strength can operate a
6 ft X 29 in. KAP by himself, pumping over 4000
cubic feet per minute through a typical large shelter
without working hard; tests have shown that he must
deliver only about V 20 of a horsepower. However,
most people prefer to work in pairs when pulling a
6-ft KAP equipped with a “Y” bridle, when pumping
over 3000 cfm.

To pump the maximum volume of air with
minimum effort, study Fig. 24 and follow the
instructions given below for operating a large KAP.

ORNL DWG 72-6526

Fig. 24.

1. Gradually start the pump swinging back and
forth, moving your arms and body as illustrated and

pulling mostly with your legs and body.

2. Stand at such a distance from the pump that
you can pull the pump toward you until the forward-
swinging pump just touches the tightly stretched pull-
cord — and at such a distance that you can keep the
pull-cord slack during the whole of the pump’s free
backswing.

3. To be sure you do not reduce the amount of
air pumped, rapidly move your arms forward as soon
as the forward-swinging pump touches the tightened
pull-cord. Hold your arms forward until the pump
again starts to swing toward you.

IX. SOLUTIONS TO SPECIAL PROBLEMS

A. Increasing the Usefulness of Shelters
by Supplying 40 cfm per Planned Occupant

If a shelter is fully occupied for days during hot
weather and is cooled both day and night by pumping
through it and distributing at least 40 cubic feet per
minute of outdoor air for each occupant — more than
is required to maintain tolerable temperatures at
night — these advantages result:

• The shelter occupants will be exposed to
effective temperatures less than 2°F higher than the
current effective temperatures outdoors, and at night
will get relief from extreme heat.

• The floors, walls, etc. of a shelter so ventilated
will be cooled at night to temperatures well below
daytime temperatures. Therefore, during the day a
considerable fraction of the occupants’ body heat will
flow into the floors, walls, and other parts of the
shelter and less body heat will have to be carried out
by the exhaust air during the hottest hours of the day.
Thus daytime temperatures will be reduced.

• Since the shelter occupants will be cooler and
will sweat less, especially at night, they will need less
water than they would require if the shelter were
ventilated at a rate of less than 40 cfm per occupant.
(If the outdoor air is very hot and desert-dry, it
usually is better to supply less than 40 cfm per
occupant during the hottest hours of the day.)

• If the shelter were to be endangered by the entry
of outside smoke, carbon monoxide or other
poisonous gases, or heavy descending fallout under
windy conditions, ventilation of the shelter could be
temporarily restricted or stopped for a longer period
than would be practical if the shelter itself were
warmer at the beginning of such a crisis period.

ORNL-DWG 66-®«

• The shelter could be occupied beyond its rated
capacity without problems caused by overcrowding
becoming as serious as would be the case if smaller-
capacity air pumps were to be installed and used.

B. Pre-Cooling Shelters

If the shelter itself is cooler than the occupants,
more of the body heat of occupants can flow into its
cool walls, ceiling, and floor. Therefore, it would be
advantageous to pre-cool a shelter that may soon be
occupied, especially during hot weather. KAPs (or
other air pumps or fans) can be used to pre-cool a
shelter by forcing the maximum volume of cooling
outdoor air through the shelter and by distributing it
within the shelter. A shelter should be pre-cooled at
all times when the air temperature outdoors is lower
than the air temperature inside the shelter. Then, if
the pre-cooled shelter is used, the occupants will be
kept cooler at a given rate of ventilation than if the
shelter had not been pre-cooled, because the air will
not have to carry all of their body heat out of the
shelter.

C. Increasing the Effectiveness of a KAP

If you want to increase the volume of air that a
KAP with good metal hinges can force through a
shelter, install side baffles (see Fig. 25). Side baffles
should be rigidly fixed to form two stationary
“walls,” one on each side of the swinging pump
frame. They can be made of plywood, boards, doors,
table tops, or even well-braced plastic. A space or
clearance of V 2 to 1 in. should be maintained between
the inner side of each baffle and the outer side of the
swinging frame.

By installing side baffles you may be able to
increase the volume of air your KAP will pump by as
much as 20%, if it is in good repair and the openings
around it are small.

ALL UNUSED OPENINGS IN
DOORWAY SHOULD BE COVERED

D. Operating a KAP as an Exhaust Pump

In some shelters, a KAP can be operated most
effectively by using it as an exhaust pump. This can
be done by pushing it with a push-pole attached to its
center vertical brace. Push-pole operation is some-
times the best way to “suck” outdoor air into a shelter
by pumping air out of the shelter in the natural
direction of air flow; for example, up an elevator
shaft or up a stairwell. This method is especially
useful in those basement shelters in which air-intake
openings are impractical for installing KAPs. This
would be the case if the air-intake openings are small,
exposed windows or holes broken in the ceiling of a
shelter in a building.

To pump a large KAP most effectively with a
push-pole, stand with your back to the KAP and
grasp the push-pole with both hands. Using mostly
your leg muscles, push the KAP by pulling the free
end of its push-pole toward you.

Figure 26 shows an improvised, flexible connec-
tion of a push-pole attached to the center brace of a
large KAP 28 in. from the top of its frame.

0*.«n_ -DWG 66->?33?9

■piece of leather ifrom

SHOE UPPER OR WiOE 8ELT»

SHOWN BEFORE
TIGHTENING — ,

NYLON CORO MOuOiNG

leather TO center
BRACE m | i .

TiGhTly STAPLE OR NAIL
TO CENTER BRACE —

SHOWN AFTER
TIGHTENING
ONLY THIS KNOT

CORO WITH ADJUSTABLE SLIPKNOT
TO HOLO LFATHER Tightly TO END
OF PUSH-POLE ,

KNOTTED PERMANENT LOOP
IN END OF SAME CORO

9 FOOT LONG WOODEN POLE. »/« ■ l'/ 4 .n
IWiTH UPPER ANO LOWER EDGES Of ITS
£N0 ROUNDEO ) . IS BEST FOR A 3-FOOT
MODEL (OR USE A i-.i*-DlA BAMBOO POLE)''

^ STRONG STRINGS TIED TIGHTLY
AROUND The LEATHER (AFTER
EVERYTHING ELSE HAS BEEN DONE )

-CENTER BRACE OF
KEARNY PUMP

Fig. 26. Push-pole flexible connection.

E. Ventilating a Shelter with
Only One Opening

Some basement rooms that may be used as
shelters have only one opening, the doorway. A KAP
can be used to ventilate such a shelter room if enough
well-mixed and distributed air is movingjust outside
the doorway, or if air from outdoors can be pumped
in by another KAP and made to flow in a hallway or
room and pass just outside this doorway. Figure 27
indicates how to ventilate such a one-opening room
by operating a 3-ft KAP as an air-intake pump in the
upper part of the doorway.

Below such a doorway KAP, a “divider” 6 ft to
8 ft long can be installed. The divider permits exhaust
air to flow out of the room without much of it being
“sucked” back into the room by the KAP swinging
above it. Plywood, reinforced heavy cardboard, or
even well-braced plastic can be used to make a
divider. It should be installed so that, in a possible
emergency, it can be jerked out of the way in a few
seconds.

When used with a divider, a 36 X 29 in. KAP can
pump almost 1000 cubic feet of air per minute into
and out of such a shelter room. Although 1000 cubic

feet of well-distributed air is sufficient for several
times as many as 25 shelter occupants under most
temperate climate conditions, it is enough for only
about 25 people in a one-entry room under
exceptionally severe heat-wave conditions. Further-
more, to make it habitable for even 25 people under
such conditions, the air in this room must be kept
from rising more than 2°F above the temperature
outdoors. This can be done using a second air-supply
KAP to pump enough outdoor air through the
building and in some cases also using air-distribution
KAPs in spaces outside the one-entry room. The
KAP in the doorway of a one-entry room should
supply 40 cfm per occupant of this room.

In order to prevent any of the used, warmed,
exhaust air from the one-entry room from being
“sucked” by the doorway KAP back into the room, a
stiffened rectangular duct can be built so as to extend
the exhaust-opening (in the lower part of the
doorway) several feet outside the room. Such a duct
can be built of plastic supported by a frame of small
boards. It can be used to discharge the exhaust air far
enough away from the KAP and “downstream” in the
airflow outside the one-opening room so that no
exhausted air can be ‘‘sucked” back into the room.

ORNL OWG 72-8203

F. Installing a KAP in a Steel-Framed Doorway

If you need to install a KAP in a steel-framed
doorway and it is not feasible to screw or otherwise
permanently connect it to the doorway, you can
attach the KAP by using a few boards and some cord,
as illustrated by Figs. 28 and 29. The two horizontal
boards shown extending across the doorway are
squeezed tightly against the two sides of the wall in
which the doorway is located by tightening two loops
of cord, one near each side of the doorway. One loop
is illustrated. A cord is first tightened around the two
horizontal boards. Then the looped cord is further
tightened by binding it in the center with another
cord, as illustrated.

Two large “C” clamps serve even better than two
looped cords. However, secure support for a
swinging KAP still requires the use of a vertical
support board on each side of the doorway, as
illustrated.

ORNL DWG 72-6364

Fig. 28.

Figure 29 shows a quick-removal bracket
supported by two horizontal boards tightened across
the upper part of a doorway by looped cords, as
described above. Also, study Fig. 19 and its
accompanying instructions.

ORNL DWG 73 G6»7

Fig. 29.

G. Building More Durable KAPs

If you are building KAPs in normal times, you
may want to use materials that will make your pumps
last longer, even though these materials are more
difficult to obtain and are more expensive.

Durability tests have shown that the KAP parts
that wear out first are the flaps and the pulleys. In 6-ft
KAPs. the lower flaps are subject to hard use. Lower
flaps made of 6-oz (per sq.. yd), clear, nylon-
reinforced, plied vinyl have lasted undamaged for
over 1000 hours of full-stroke pumping, without
having their edges reinforced. Lowerflaps made of 6-
mil nylon-reinforced polyethylene, without edge
reinforcements, have lasted for 1000 hours with only
minor damage.

The best pulley tested was a marine pulley such
as that used on small sailboats, with a Delrin
(DuPont) 2-in. -diameter wheel and 3 /i6-in. stainless
steel shaft. This pulley was undamaged after
operating a 6-ft KAP for 324 hours. The pulley
appeared to be good for hundreds of hours of further
operation.

The best pulley-cords tested were of braided
dacron or nylon.

H. Using Air Filters

To supply shelter occupants with filtered air
usually would be of much less importance to their
survival and health than to provide them with
adequate volumes of outdoor air to maintain
tolerable temperatures. However, filtering the
entering air could prove worthwhile, provided:

• Your shelter is not in an area likely to be
subjected to blast, or it is a blast shelter with blast
doors and blast valves protecting everything inside.

• Work on filters is started after you have
completed more essential work, including the
building of a high-protection-factor shelter, making,
installing, and testing the necessary number of KAPs,
storing adequate water, making a homemade fallout
meter, etc.

• You have enough low-resistance filters (such as
fiberglass dust filters used in furnaces and air-
conditioners) and other materials for building the
necessary large, supported filter in front of your
KAP.

• Your KAP can pump an adequate volume of air
through the filter and shelter.

• The filter is installed so that it can be easily
removed if shelter temperatures rise too high.

To prevent a filter used with a KAP from
causing too great a red uction in the volume of air that
the KAP can pump through your shelter, you must
use large areas of low-resistance filter material. An
example: In one ventilation test, a large basement
shelter was used which had two ordinary doorways at
its opposite ends. These served as its air-intake and its
air-exhaust openings. A 72 X 29 in. KAP operating in
one doorway pumped almost 5000 cubic feet per
minute through the shelter. But when a filter frame
holding 26 square feet of 1-in. -thick fiberglass dust
filters was placed across the air-intake stairwell, the
KAP could pump only about 3400 cfm through this
filter and the shelter.

APPENDIX C

INSTRUCTIONS, Page 1

213

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These instructions, including the heading on this page and the illustrative photos, can be photographed
without additional screening and rapidly reproduced by a newspaper or printer. If you keep the KFM
instructions intact, during a worsening crisis you will be able to use them to help your friends and
thousands of your fellow citizens by making them available for reproduction.

Pg 1 — (1) LOGO

. The Need for Accurate and Dependable Fallout Meters 11. Survival Work Priorities During a Crisis

INSTRUCTIONS, Page 2

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Before a nuclear attack occurs is the best time to build, test and learn how to use a instructions with other family members, especially teenagers.

KFM. However, this instrument is so simple that it could be made even after fallout .... ,

arrives provided that all the materials and tools needed (see lists given in Sections V, '• After completing one KFM and learning to use it, if time permits make
VI, and VII) and a copy of these instructions have been carried into the shelter. second KFM-that should be a better instrument.

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INSTRUCTIONS. Page 11

223

PATTERN FOR CLEAR-PLASTIC COVER FOR KFM CAN

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PATTERN PAGE (B)

CAUTION: XEROX COPIES OF THE FINISHED-LEAF AND THE
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Pg 5 — (18)

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OF TAPE, IN ORDER TO KEEP FROM TEARING THIS PAPER WHEN
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INSTRUCTIONS, Page 13

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CUT EXACTL Y ON SIDE LINES -v ORNL-DWG 76-6535

INSTRUCTIONS
EXTRA PAGE

PAPER PATTERN TO WRAP AROUND KFM CAN (GLUE OR TAPE SECURELY TO CAN)

CUT OUT THESE PATTERNS, EACH OF WHICH IS THE EXACT SIZE FOR A KFM.
PATTERN PAGE (A) CAUTION: XEROX COPIES OF THESE PATTERNS MAY BE TOO LARGE.

LONG SIDE

237

INSTRUCTIONS
EXTRA PAGE

PATTERN FOR CLEAR-PLASTIC COVER FOR KFM CAN

OPEN EDGE

THREAD LINE

8-PLY LEAF

THIRD-FOLD EDGE

CUT ALONG
ENDS OF MARKS
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20 15 10 5 0 5 10 15 20

FINISHED-LEAF PATTERN

JT OUT EXACTLY ON SIDE LINES) PAPER SCALE (TO BE CUT OUT)

PATTERN PAGE (B)

CAUTION: XEROX COPIES OF THE FINISHED-LEAF AND THE
SCALE PATTERNS MAY BE SLIGHTLY TOO LARGE.

INSTRUCTIONS
EXTRA PAGE

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239

INSTRUCTIONS
EXTRA PAGE

INSTRUCTIONS

(A)

INSTRUCTIONS FOR PERSONS CONCERNED
WITH REPRODUCING THE KFM INSTRUCTIONS

The KFM instruction pages are printed so that they can be readily cut out and pasted up (using the
"LAYOUT FOR 12-PAGE TABLOID”given on page 242) to expedite rapid reproduction preparatory to
mass distribution. No authorization is required to reproduce this survival information.

All of the paste-ups should be photo-reduced to fit your size newspaper.-EXCEPT four cut-outs [paste-ups
(15), (18), (21) and (24)] and one drawing [paste-up (26)] SHOULD REMAIN AT 100%.

T o make the instruction pages fully camera-ready for paste-up and photographing, it is necessary: ( 1 ) To cut off
each page’s title and number (such as "INSTRUCTIONS, Page 2”and "214”); (2) To use a camera-invisible
blue pencil to copy the numbers on the back of each page onto the front of that page, writing them in a blank
space nearest to the approximate original position of the numbers; (3) To cut out each of the 40 paste-ups.

On the back of each paste-up are the number of the tabloid page to which the paste-up is to be attached and
(in parentheses) the number of the paste-up itself. For example, on the back of “INSTRUCTIONS, Page 2”
are printed the following: "Pg 1 -(2)”and“Pg 1 -(3).”Thus, this page contains two paste-ups, both of which
should be attached to page 1 of the tabloid paste-up. The positions in which they should be attached to page
1 are shown in the layout sketch on page 242-.

l imed field tests by two newspapers have shown that less than 40 minutes is required to begin printing a
KFM tabloid. Each test began when the newspaper was given only written instructions like this page and the
following layout page, along with K FM instructions like those in this book — except that the index numbers
were already printed in camera-invisible blue on each half page of the instructions.

The camera-ready copy is for use with a straight lens (100% horizontal and 100% vertical reproduction).

TABLOID
LAYOUT SHEET

CENTER FOLD
OF A 12-PAGE
TABLOID, INDICATING
TABLOID Page 6 AND
Page 7.

All photographs are 85-line screen.

I'he following layout sketch for a 12-page tabloid indicates where each of the numbered paste-ups [(1),
(2), . . . (40)] should be pasted-up and what spaces should be left blank. This positioning of the paste-ups is
necessary to permit a KFM-maker to cut out the patterns without destroying any instructions printed on
opposite sides of the 12 tabloid pages.

INSTRUCTIONS (B) FOR PHOTOGRAPHER - PRINTER

242

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Appendix D
Expedient Blast Shelters

INCREASING IMPORTANCE

The majority of urban and suburban Americans
would need blast shelters to avoid death or injury if
they did not evacuate before an all-out nuclear attack.
As nuclear arsenals continue to grow, an increasing
majority would need the protection of blast shelters. In
an attack on militarily relevant targets, as much
as 5% of the total area of the 48 states could be
subjected to blast damage severe enough to destroy or
damage homes — depending on the number of
warheads assigned to each hard target, weapon
reliability, etc. If blast shelters affording protection up
to the 15-pounds-per-square-inch (15 psi) overpressure
range were available to everybody and were occu-
pied at the time of attack, the great majority of
the occupants would survive all blast, fire, and
radiation effects in the blast areas subjected to
less than 15-psi blast effects.

Fifteen-psi blast shelters will survive as
close as about 1.5 miles from ground zero of a
1-megaton surface burst, and about 2.3 miles
from ground zero or a 1-megaton air burst.
Except in high-density urban areas where the
air supply openings and exits of shelters are all
too likely to be covered with blast-hurled debris,
the area in which people inside good earth-
covered 15-psi blast shelters would be killed
would be only about 1 / 6th as large as the area in
which most people sheltered in typical Ameri-
can homes probably would die from blast and
fire effects alone.

Blast tests have indicated that the Small-
Pole Shelter (the most blast-resistant of the
earth-covered expedient shelters described in
Appendix A) should enable its occupants to
survive up to the 50-psi overpressure range — if
built with the blast-resistant and radiation-
protective features described in following sec-
tions, and if located outside an urban area.
Calculations show that this earth-covered ex-
pedient blast shelter also would give adequate
protection at the 50-psi blast overpressure range
against the intense initial nuclear radiation that
is emitted from the fireball of a 1-megaton
explosion. However, to make this shelter (see
page 258) provide adequate protection against
the even more intense initial nuclear radiation
that would reach the 50-psi overpressure range

from the fireball of a 500-kiloton or smaller explo-
sion, it should have at least 6 feet of earth cover
and additional cans of water should be kept
ready to be placed in the horizontal parts of the
entry ways promptly after the shelter is occupied.

The life-saving potential of well designed, well
built blast shelters is a demonstrated fact. Millions of
Americans living in high-risk areas would be able to
build expedient blast shelters within only a few days
provided they were given field-tested instructions,
had made some preparations before the crisis
arose, had a few days of recognized warning,
and during the crisis were motivated by the
President. The following information is given in the
hope of encouraging more Americans to make prepara-
tions for blast protection. Also, it may serve to increase
the number who realize the need for permanent blast
shelters in high-risk blast areas.

Some informed citizens — particularly those who
live near large cities or in their outer suburbs — may
choose to build earth-covered expedient blast shelters
in their backyards, rather than to evacuate. Going into
a strange area and trying to build or find good shelter
and other essentials of life would entail risks that many
people might hesitate to take, particularly if they live
outside the probable areas of severe blast damage. For
such citizens, the best decision might be to stay at
home, build earth-covered expedient blast shelters,
supply them with the essentials for long occupancy, and
remain with their possessions.

The following descriptions of the characteristics
and components of expedient blast shelters should
enable many readers to use locally available materials
to provide at least 15-psi blast protection. Pre-crisis
preparations are essential, as well as the ability to work
very hard for two to four days. (Field-tested instructions
are not yet available; to date only workers who were
supervised have built expedient blast shelters. 5 )

PRACTICALITY OF EXPEDIENT
BLAST SHELTERS

At Hiroshima and Nagasaki, simple wood-framed
shelters with about 3 feet of earth over wooden roofs
were undamaged by blast effects in areas where
substantial buildings were demolished. 4

Figure D.l shows a Hiroshima shelter that people
with hand tools could build in a day, if poles or
timber were available. This shelter withstood blast
and fire at an overpressure range of about 65 psi. Its
narrow room and a 3-foot-thick earth cover brought
about effective earth arching; this kept its yielding
wooden frame from being broken.

Fig. D.l. A small, earth-covered backyard
shelter with a crude wooden frame — undamaged,
although only 300 yards from ground zero at
Hiroshima.

Although the shelter itself was undamaged, its
occupants would have been fatally injure.d because
the shelter had no blast door. The combined effect of
blast waves, excessive pressure, blast wind, and burns
from extremely hot dust blown into the shelter (the
popcorning effect) and from the heated air would
have killed the occupants. For people to survive in
areas of severe blast, their shelters must have strong
blast doors.

In nuclear weapons tests in the Nevada desert,
box-like shelters built of lumber and covered with
sandy earth were structurally undamaged by 10- to
15-psi blast effects. However, none had blast doors,
so occupants of these open shelters would have been
injured by blast effects and burned as a result of the
popcorning effect. Furthermore, blast winds blew
away much of the dry, sandy earth mounded over the
shelters for shielding; this resulted in inadequate
protection against fallout radiation.

Twelve different types of expedient shelters were
blast-tested by Oak Ridge National Laboratory
during three of Defense Nuclear Agency’s blast tests. 5
Two of these tests each involved the detonation of a
million pounds or more of conventional explosive;
air-blast effects equivalent to those from a 1-kiloton

nuclear surface burst were produced by these
chemical explosions.

Several of these shelters had expedient blast
doors which were closed during the tests. Figure D.2
shows the undamaged interior of the best expedient
blast shelter tested prior to 1 978, an improved version
of the Small-Pole Shelter described in Appendix A.
Its two heavy plywood blast doors excluded
practically all blast effects; the pressure inside rose
only to 1.5 psi — an overpressure not nearly high
enough to break eardrums. The only damage was to
the expedient shelter-ventilating pump (a KAP) in
the stoop-in entryway. Two men worked about 5
minutes to replace the 4 flap-valves that were blown
loose.

Fig. D.2. Undamaged interior of a Small-Pole
Shelter after blast testing at the 53-psi overpressure
range. Large buildings would have been completely
demolished.

When blast-tested at 5-psi overpressure, not
even the weakest covered-trench shelters with
unsupported earth walls (described in Appendix A)
were damaged structurally. However, if the covering

earth were sandy and dry and if it were exposed to the
blast winds of a megaton explosion at the 5-psi
overpressure range, so much earth would be blown
away that the shelter would give insufficient
protection against fallout radiation. Much of the dry,
shielding earth mounded over some of the above-
ground shelters was, in fact, removed by the blast
winds of these relatively small test explosions, even at
the lower overpressure ranges at which homes would
be wrecked. In contrast, in blast tests where the
steeply mounded earth was damp, little blast-wind
erosion resulted. (The reader should remember that
even if shelters without blast doors are undamaged,
the occupants are likely to suffer injuries.)

CONSTRUCTION PRINCIPLES

Millions of Americans — if given good instruc-
tions, strong motivation, and several days to
work — should be able to build blast shelters with
materials found in many rural areas and suburban
neighborhoods. During a crisis, yard trees could be
cut do wn for poles and sticks, and a garage or part of
a house could be torn down for lumber. Many
average citizens could build expedient blast shelters if
they learn to:

• Utilize earth arching by making a yielding
shelter. The remarkable protection that earth arching
gives to those parts of a shelter designed to use it is
illustrated by Fig. D.3.

This picture shows the unbroken roof of a 4-
foot-wide Pole-Covered Trench Shelter that was

Fig. D.3. Effective earth arching in the earth
covering of this 4-ft-wide Pole-Covered Trench
Shelter prevented a single pole from being broken by
blast forces that exerted a downward force of 53 psi
(over 3'/a tons per square foot) on the overlying
earth.

built in rock-like soil and blast tested where the blast
pressure outside was 53 psi. Its strong blast doors
prevented the blast wave from entering. Without the
protection of earth arching that developed in the 5
feet of earth cover over the yielding roof poles, the

poles would have been broken like straws. In

contrast, the ground shock and earth pressure
produced by 1-kiloton blast effects almost com-
pletely collapsed the unsupported, rock-like earth
walls.

Fig. D.4. Post-blast interior of an Above-
ground, Door-Covered Shelter that survived 1 -kilo-
ton blast effects at the 5.8-psi overpressure range. The
shelter walls were made of bedsheets containing
earth, as described in Appendix A.

Figure D.4 also indicates the effectiveness
of earth arching. This photo shows the roof of a
small, earth-covered fallout shelter, as it appeared
after surviving blast effects severe enough to
demolish most homes. The roof was made of light,
hollow-core, interior doors and looks as though it
had been completely broken. In fact, only the lower
sheets of '/g-inch-thick veneer of the hollow-core
interior doors were broken. (These breaks were
caused by a faulty construction procedure — a front-
end loader had dumped several tons of earth onto the
uncovered doors.) The upper '/s-inch-thick sheets of
veneer were bowed downward, unbroken, until an
earth arch formed in the 2-foot-thick earth covering
and prevented the thin sheets from being broken.
Earth arching also prevented this roof from being
smashed in by blast overpressure that exerted a
pressure of 5.8 psi (835 pounds per square foot) on
the surface of the earth mounded over this open
shelter. (See Appendix A for details of construction.)

• Make shelters with the minimum practical
ceiling height and width. Most of the narrow

covered-trench shelters used by tens of thousands of
Londoners during the World War II blitz, were built
with only 4 '/ 2 -foot ceilings, to maximize blast
protection and minimize high water-table problems.
These shelters were found to be among the safest for
protection against nearby explosions. The Chinese
also have a good understanding of this design
principle and skillfully utilize the protection provided
by earth arching. A Chinese civil defense handbook
states: “. . . the height and width of tunnel shelters
should be kept to the minimum required to
accommodate the sheltering requirements,” and
“The thicker the protective layer of earth, the greater
the ability to resist blast waves.” 21

• Shore earth walls to prevent their caving in as a
result of ground shock and earth pressure. Most
unshored (that is, unsupported) earth walls are
partially collapsed by ground shock at much lower
blast overpressures than those at which a flexible roof
protected by earth arching is damaged. Figure D.5 is
a picture of a seated dummy taken by a high-speed
movie camera mounted inside an unshored, Pole-
Covered Trench Shelter of the Russian type tested at
the 20-psi range. (A second dummy was obscured by
blast-torn curtains made of blankets.) The shelter had
an open stairway entry way, positioned at right angles
to the stand-up-height trench and facing away from
the targeted “city” so as to minimize the entry of blast
waves and blast wind.

Fig. D.5. A dummy in an unshored Pole-
Covered Trench Shelter as it is struck by collapsing
rock-like earth walls. The photo also shows the
shelter’s blanket-curtains as they are torn and blown
into the shelter by the 180-mph blast wind.
(Immediately after this photo was taken, the
dummies were hit by the airborne blast wave and
blast wind. Outside, the blast wind peaked at about
490 mph.)

Figure D.6 is a post-blast view of the essentially
undamaged earth-covered roof poles and the
disastrously collapsed, unshored shelter walls of the
Russian shelter tested at 20 psi. 21 Russian civil
defense books state that unshored fallout shelters do
not survive closer to the blast than the 7-psi
overpressure range. This limitation was confirmed by
an identical shelter tested at 7 psi; parts of its
unshored walls were quite badly collapsed by the
ground shock from an explosion producing merely
1-kiloton blast effects.

Fig. D.6. Dummies after ground shock from
1-kiloton blast effects at the 20-psi range had
collapsed the rock-like walls of a hardened desert soil
called caliche. The dummies’ steel “bones” and
“joints” prevented them from being knocked down
and buried. The fallen caliche all around them kept
them from being blown over by the air blast wave and
180-mph blast wind that followed.

Unsupported earth walls should be sloped as
much as practical. The length and strength of
available roofing material should be considered and,
in order to attain effective earth arching, the
thickness of the earth cover should be at least half as
great as the distance between the edges of the trench.

The stability of the earth determines the proper
method for shoring the walls of a trench, shelter.

Methods for shoring both loose, unstable earth and
firm, stable earth are described below:

*In loose, unstable earth such as sand, the
walls of all underground shelters must be shored.
First, an oversized trench must be dug with gently
sloping sides. Next, the shoring is built, often as a
freestanding, roofless structure. Then earth must be

backfilled around the shoring to a level a few inches
higher than the uppermost parts of the shoring, as in
Fig. D.7. Finally, the roof poles or planks must be
placed so that they are supported only by the
backfilled earth. Blast tests have indicated that a
Pole-Covered Trench Shelter thus proportioned and
lightly shored should protect its occupants against
disastrous collapse of its walls at overpressure ranges
up to 15 psi.

* In firm, stable earth, it is best first to dig a
trench a few inches wider than 7 feet (the length of the
roof poles) and 1 foot deep. Next, dig the part to be
shored, down the center of this shallow trench, using

the dimensions given for the shoring in Fig. D.7. The
trench walls should be sloped and smoothed quite
accurately, so that the shoring can be tightened
against the earth. If the shoring does not press tightly
against the trench walls, large wedges of earth may be
jarred loose, hit the shoring, and cause it to collapse.

A different, comparatively simple way to tighten
shoring is indicated by Fig. D.8. This sketch shows a
4-pole frame designed to be installed every I'/z feet
along a trench in stable earth and to be tightened
against trench-wall shoring with the same dimensions
as those shown in Fig. D.7. Note that the two
horizontal brace poles have shallow “V” notches

ORNL-DWG 78-14430R

CORRUGATED METAL ROOFING

Fig. D.7. An illustration of several ways to shore a trench in unstable evth, using various materials. A
4-piece frame (consisting of 4 poles, or 4 boards, installed as shown above) should be installed every 2*/2 feet along
the length of the trench, including the horizontal parts of the entry ways. All parts of the shoring should be at least
2 inches below the roof poles, so that the downward forces on the roof will press only on the earth.

ORNL DWG 78-17246R

Fig. D.8. A 4-pole frame designed so that it can
be tightened against the shoring materials that must
press firmly against the walls of a trench dug in stable
earth. (In this sketch, the middle sections of three
poles have been removed, so that the upper brace pole
may be seen more clearly.)

sawed in both ends. If these brace poles are driven
downward when positioned as shown, the two wall
poles are forced outward against the shoring
materials placed between them and the earth walls.
An upper brace pole should be cut to the length
needed to make it approximately the same height as
the roof poles on each side of it (no higher) after the
shoring is tightened. Finally, each “V”-notched end
should be nailed to its wall pole.

Light, yielding poles can serve simultaneously
both to roof and to shore a shelter. A good example is
the Chinese “Man” Shelter illustrated in Fig. D.9,
requiring comparatively few poles to build. 2 ' This
shelter is too cramped for long occupancy, and its
unshored, lower earth walls can be squeezed in by
blast pressure. Therefore, it is not recommended if
sufficient materials are available for building a well-
shored, covered-trench shelter. It is described here
primarily to help the reader understand the construc-
tion of similarly designed entryways, outlined later in
this appendix. The room and the horizontal entryway
of the model tested were made of 6'/2-foot poles
averaging only 3 inches in diameter. It had two
vertical, triangular entries of ORNL design. Each
was protected by an expedient triangular blast door
made of poles. In Fig. D.9, note the two small

horizontal poles at the top of the triangle, one tied
inside and the other tied outside the triangle, to hold
the wall poles together. Before covering this shelter
with earth, a 6-inch-thick covering of small limbs was
placed horizontally across the approximately 3-inch-
wide spaces between the 6 '/2-foot wall poles; the limbs
were then covered with bedsheets.

I- 190 — 1

is 3-107 a

Fig. D.9. Chinese “Man” Shelter tested at
20 psi, and undamaged because the thin poles yielded
and were protected by earth arching. This drawing
was taken from a Chinese civil defense manual. The
dimensions are in centimeters.

When blast-tested in loose, unstable soil, the
unsupported earth walls of the trench below the wall
poles were squeezed in. The 12-inch width of the foot
trench was reduced to as little as 4 inches by the short-
duration forces produced by 0.2-kiloton blast effects
at 50 psi. The much longer duration forces of a
megaton explosion would be far more damaging to
the shelter at lower overpressure ranges, due to
destabilizing and squeezing-in unshored earth at
depths many feet below ground level.

Calculations based on blast-test findings indi-
cate that the unsupported earth walls of a shelter are
likely to fail if the aboveground maximum overpress-
ure is greater than 5 to 7 psi and this overpressure is
caused by an explosion that is a megaton or more.

(Most homes would be severely damaged by the3-psi
blast effects from a 1-megaton or larger weapon. This
damage would result one mile closer to ground zero
of a I-megaton surface burst than the distance at
which the unshored earth walls of some shelters
would be collapsed. For a 20-megaton surface burst,
the corresponding reduction in distance would be
about 2.7 miles.)

• Build sufficiently long and strong entryways.

Blast shelters need longer horizontal entryways,
taller vertical entryways, and thicker earth cover than
do most fallout shelters; these are needed primarily
for increased protection against high levels of initial
nuclear radiation. The entryways of the Small-Pole
Shelter described in Appendix A. 3 (with the
improvements for increased blast protection outlined
in the following section of this appendix) afford
protection against both blast and radiation up to the
50-psi overpressure range. However, these entryways
require straight poles 14 feet long; these may be
difficult to find or transport.

In contrast, both the horizontal and the vertical
parts of the triangular entry pictured in Figs. D.10,
D.I1, and D.12 require only small-diameter, short
poles. Triangular entries of this type were un-
damaged by 1-kiloton blast effects at the 20-psi
overpressure range 5 and by 0.2-kiloton blast effects at

50 psi. This type of entry and its blast door (also
triangular and made of short poles) can be used with
a wide variety of expedient blast shelters and should
withstand megaton blast effects at 25 psi. Therefore,
their construction is described in considerable detail.

* The horizontal part of a triangular entry; If

the Chinese “Man” Sheltershown in Fig. D.9 is made
without excavating the unshored lower trench that
forms its earth seats, it will serve as a horizontal,
shored crawlway-entry affording blast protection up
to at least the 25-psi overpressure range. Two
horizontal entries, one at each end of the shelter,
should be provided. Each entry should be 10 feet
long. This length is needed to reduce the amount of
initial nuclear radiation reaching the blast shelter
room while assuring adequate through-ventilation.
The outer part of such a horizontal entry is pictured
in the background of Fig. D.IO.

* The vertical part of a triangular entry: The

lower section of the vertical part is made in a similar
manner to the horizontal shelter shown in Fig. D.9.
Figure D.10 shows 4 ‘/ 2 -foot horizontal poles (1)
forming a “V”, with one end of each pole laid on top
of the adjacent lower pole. The other ends of these
poles (1) are pressed against the two pairs of vertical
posts (2). (After this photo was taken, the tops of
these two pairs of vertical posts were sawed off as

Fig. D.10. Uncompleted lower section of a vertical triangular entry.

ORNL— DWG 78-14675

TOP VIEW

Fig. D.l 1. Lower part of a vertical triangular entry, showing its connection to the horizontal part of
the shelter entry.

Fig. D.12. Completed frame of Chinese “Man” Shelter showing its two ORNL-designed entryways
(one at each end) and triangular blast doors made of poles. Before covering the triangular vertical entries with
earth, tree branches were placed vertically over the sides; the branches then were covered with bedsheets.
Horizontal branches, also covered with bedsheets, were laid over the rest of the shelter frame. After being
covered with earth, this shelter was subjected to 1-kiloton blast effects. Multiple earth arching over and around
this yielding structure prevented both the small poles and the bedsheets from being damaged at 20 psi.

shown in Fig. D.l l.)The4 I /2-foot horizontal poles (1)
were kept level by the short spacer-poles (3) that were
wired or nailed in place.

Each pair of vertical posts (2) was securely wired
together at top and bottom. The two pairs were held
apart at top and bottom by two horizontal brace-
poles toenailed in place to frame the rectangular
30-X 30-inch crawlway “doorway” between the
vertical entry and the horizontal entry. Only the
upper pole (4) of these two 30-inch-long horizontal
brace-poles is shown.

The two pairs of vertical posts (2) were
positioned so that they pressed against two 7*/2-foot
horizontal poles (5); only the uppermost is shown.
These in turn pressed against the outermost two poles
(6) of the horizontal entry and against the earth in
two slot-trenches dug in the sidewalls of the
excavation. These two 7 1 /2-foot poles (5) should beat
least 6 inches in diameter.

Additional details of the lower section of this
vertical triangular entry are given in Fig. D. 11. If
horizontal poles considerably larger in diameter than
those illustrated are used, fewer poles are required
and strength is increased. However, the space inside

the entry is decreased unless the larger-diameter
horizontal poles that form the “V” are made longer
than 4*/2 feet.

As shown on the left in Fig. D.10, a small,
vertical pole (7) was placed in the small “V” between
the outer ends of the horizontal poles that form the
lower section of the vertical entry. After this photo
was taken, a second small, vertical pole was
positioned in the adjacent large “V”, inside the entry.
These two poles (7) were then tightly wired together
so as to make a strong, somewhat yielding, outer-
corner connection of the horizontal poles (1) — in the
same way that the tops of the side-wall poles of the
Chinese “Man” Shelter are bound together.

The upper section of the vertical part of this
entry (the section above the tops of the two pairs of
vertical posts shown in Fig. D.10 and Fig. D. 11) is
made by overlapping the ends of its nearly horizontal
poles (Fig. D.12). These poles [marked with a (1) in
Fig. D. 10J were each 4 feet 6 inches long and varied
uniformly in diameter from about 2'h inches just
above the two pairs of wired-together posts, to 4-inch
diameters just below the triangular door frame of
poles. The triangular-shaped blast door was hinged

to and closed against this door frame. The hinges
were strips cut from worn auto tires, to be described
shortly.

The upper section is formed by laying poles in a
triangular pattern, ends crossing at the angles, with
large ends and small ends placed so that the poles are
as nearly horizontal as is practical. Each of its three
corners is held together by strong wires that tightly
bind an outside and an inside small vertical pole, in
the same manner as the top of the Chinese “Man”
Shelter (shown in Fig. D.9) is secured. (Instead of
No. 9 soft steel wire, rope or twisted strips of strong
fabric could be used.)

Before starting to install the upper section of a
vertical triangular entry, the three outermost of the
six small vertical poles that will hold the three corners
together should be connected temporarily with three
small horizontal poles. Connect them at the height of
the door frame planned for the triangular blast door,
and space them so as to be the same size as this door
frame.

Next, all the horizontal poles should be laid out
on the ground in the order of their increasing
diameters. The triangular entry then should be
started with the smallest poles at the base, with
increasingly large-diameter poles used toward the
top - so that the three pairs of small vertical poles will
press securely against all the horizontal side poles of
the entry.

To prevent the negative overpressure (“suction”)
phase of the blast from yanking out and carrying
away the blast door and the upper part of the vertical
entry to which it is hinged, the uppermost 4 or 5
horizontal poles of each of the three sides of the
vertical entry should be wired or tied securely
together. Rope or strips of strong cloth can be used if
strong wire is not available.

Before placing earth around this lightly con-
structed blast-protective entry, the vertical walls
must be covered to a thickness of about 6 inches with
a yielding, crushable covering of limbs, brush, or
innerspring mattresses. Limbs or brush should be
placed in three layers, with the innermost layer at
right angles to the underlying poles. The yielding
thickness then is covered with strong cloth, such as
50% dacron bedsheets, or two thicknesses of 4-mil
polyethylene film. This outermost covering keeps
loose earth or sand from filling spaces inside the
yielding layer or running into the entry. Thus
protected, this vertical entry should be undamaged
by 25-psi blast effects of megaton weapons.

A vertical blast-protective entry can also be
made like a strong box, using 2-inch-thick boards.
Such entries afford blast protection up to 50 psi if
made as small as shown here and protected with
yielding materials such as a 6-inch-thick layer of
brush covered with strong cloth.

(1

22 in.- — ►

.c

CO

CVJ

*

• Install blast doors to keep out airborne blast
waves, blast wind, overpressure, blast-borne debris,
burning-hot dust and air, and fallout.

A fast-rising overpressure of as little as 5 psi will
break some people’s eardrums. At overpressures of
15 to 20 psi, 50% of the people who are exposed will
have their eardrums broken. However, persons near
a shelter wall may have their eardrums broken by
somewhat, less than half of these unreflected
overpressures. (Any wall may reflect blast waves and
greatly increase overpressures near it.) Broken
eardrums are not serious in normal times, but after a
nuclear attack this injury is likely to be far more
dangerous to persons in crowded shelters without
effective medical treatment. Lung damage, that can
result from overpressures as low as 10 to 12 psi,
would also be more serious under post-attack
conditions.

A blast door must withstand blast waves and
overpressure. Not only must the door itself be
sufficiently strong to withstand forces at least as great
as those which the shelter will survive, but in addition
the door frame and the entranceway walls must be
equally as strong. The expedient blast door pictured
in Fig. D.13 was made of rough boards, each a full 2
inches thick. It had a continuous row of hinges made
of 1 8-inch-long strips cut from the treads of worn car
tires.

The strips were nailed to the vertical poles on
one side of the vertical entry. These and other details
of construction are shown in Fig. D. 14. Although the
two center boards were badly cracked by the shock
wave and overpressure at the 17-psi range, the door

Fig. D.13. Blast door surrounded by 4 blast-
protector logs that were notched and nailed together.
The wet, mounded soil had been compacted by the
blast but not blown away.

pictured in Fig. D.13 afforded good protection
against all blast effects from a surface explosion of a
million pounds of TNT. In Fig. D.14, note the
essential, strong tie-down attachment of the wires at
the bottom of the vertical entry, to prevent the blast
door from being yanked open by the negative
pressure (“suction”) that follows the overpressure.

Blast doors must be protected against reflected
pressures from blast waves that could strike an edge
of an unprotected door and tear it off its hinges. Note
the blast-protector logs installed around the door
pictured in Fig. D. 14. When the door was closed, the
tops of these four logs were about 2 inches higher
than the door, thus protecting its edges on all sides.

The closed door must be prevented from
rebounding like a spring and opening a fraction of a
second after being bowed down by overpressure, or
from being opened and perhaps torn off its hinges by
the partial vacuum (“suction”) that follows the
overpressure phase. Figure D.14 gives the details of
such a hold-down system for a blast door. Note that
near the bottom of the vertical entry the 6 strong
wires must encircle a horizontal pole that is flattened
on one side and nailed to the vertical wall poles with
at least a dozen 6-inch (60-penny) nails. Blast tests up
to the 53-psi overpressure range have proved that this
hold-down system works. 5

Figure D.15 shows a blast door made of 5
thicknesses of %-inch exterior plywood, well glued
and nailed together with 4*/2-in. nails at 4-in.
spacings. This door was protected by 4 blast-
protector logs, each 8 feet long and about 8 inches in
diameter. The logs were notched, nailed together,
and surrounded with earth. For protection against
ignition by the thermal pulse from an explosion,
exposed wood and rubber should be coated with
thick whitewash (slaked lime) or mud, or covered
with aluminum foil.

An equally strong blast door and the door base
upon which it closes can be made of poles. If poles are
fresh-cut, they are easy to work with ax and saw.
Figure D.16 shows the best blast-tested design. This
door also had a continuous row of hinges made from
worn auto tire treads. The pole to which the hinges
were attached was 7 inches in diameter after peeling
and had been flattened on its top and outer sides. The
two other poles of the equal-sided triangle were 8
inches in diameter and had been flattened with an ax
on the bottom, top, and inner sides. The three poles
were each 55 inches long. They were notched and
spiked together with 60-penny nails so that the door
would close snugly on its similarly constructed base
made of three stout poles. Other poles, at least 7
inches in diameter before being hewn so that they
would fit together snugly, were nailed side-by-side on
top of the three outer poles.

Many Americans have axes and would be able to
cut poles, but not many know how to use an ax to hew
flat, square sides on a pole or log. This easily acquired
skill is illustrated by Fig. D.17. The worker should
first fasten the pole down by nailing two small poles
to it and to other logs on the ground. Figure D.17
shows a pole thus secured. When hewing a flat side,
the worker stands with his legs spread far apart, and
repeatedly moves his feet so that he can look almost
straight down at where his ax head strikes. First,
vertical cuts with a sharp ax are made about 3 or 4
inches apart and at angles of about 45° to the surface
of the pole, for the length of the pole. These multiple
cuts should be made almost as deep as is needed to
produce a flat side of the desired width. Then the
worker, again beginning at the starting end, should
cut off long strips, producing a flat side.

3RSDLE SPACE

8-10. DIAM LOOS OF BLAST-
PROTECTION FRAME ARE
PLACED 5 TO 6in OUTSIDE
ENTRY WAY.

, 8- 2X6 .0 X 4 ft 0*m-LONG BOARDS FOR 10 ps:
OVERPRESSURE (ROUGH LUMBER PREFERRED).

ALL NAiLS BENT OVER AND
CL1NCHE0

SHORT SECURITY-CORD TIED
TO PROP- STICK.

TWO STRANDS NO 9 WIRE .
FOUR STRANDS NO 9 WIRE .

BLAST- PROTECTION
FRAME (NOTCHED
LOGS- LIKE LOG
CABIN)

SIMPLER FRAME CORNER.
REQUIRING Three 60-PENNY
nails

8 STRANOS of NO 9 WIRE
(FOR ANY 8l AST OVER
PRESSURE).

WIRE LOOP AT END OP
8 STRANDS OF NO 9
WIRE CONTINUING
INTO WIRE V BRIDLE

LOAD-BINDER INSTALLED
FOR 4 -sec HOLO-DOWN
OF BLAST DOOR -

6 STRANDS OF NO 9 '

SOFT STEEL WIRE.—*

5-»n DIAM POLE, FLAT'
TEN ONE SIOE BY
REMOVING <V 2 r AND
NAIL WITH TWO 60
PENNY NAILS TO
EACH VERTICAL POLE'

WlRF SAFETY LOOP
HOOKED OVER 3 TO 4 -m
DIAM SAFETY POST

FIRST EACH CAR TIRE HINGE
IS NAILED TO DOOR WITH SIX
16-PENNY NAILS (CLINCHED).
THEN A 2X6-in BOARD IS
NAILED OVER HINGES WITH
40-PENNY NAILS (CLINCHEO)

CAR-TIRE HINGE,

4-in X 18-in. LONG

OUTSIDE 12 in OF EACH VERTICAL
POLE IS FLATTENED FOR HINGE,
ATTACHMENT WITH NINE
20-PENNY NAILS PER POLE-

CROSS SECTION

SHOWING HINGE OFF-SE’ AND B.. AST
DOOR- SHOWN in SAFETY P0S:Ti0N.

BOTTOM OF ENTRYWAY

Fig. D.14. Expedient blast door that can be closed and secured in 4 seconds. Four
seconds would be too little time if the shelter is at the 15-psi overpressure range
from a 550-kiloton or smaller warhead — typical of the 1987 Soviet ICBM
arsenal. (See the last paragraph on page 255.) However, this door closure is still
the best blast-tested expedient means to secure a closed blast door.

Fig. D.15. Tire-strip hinges nailed to an ex-
pedient, 4-inch-thick blast door made of plywood,
designed to withstand 50-psi blast effects of very large
weapons and undamaged by blast at the 53-psi
range.

Fig. D.16. Blast-tested triangular blast door
made of hand-hewn pine poles, notched and nailed
together. This door closed on a triangular pole base
that is concealed in this photo by two of the three
blast-protector logs that also withstood 53-psi blast
effects.

Fig. D.17. Hewing flat sides on a pole with a
sharp ax.

To hew a second flat side at right angles to the
first side, rotate the pole 90°, secure it again, and
repeat — as pictured in Fig. D.17.

• Provide blast closures for an adequate ventila-
tion system. The following two expedient closure
systems permit adequate volumes of ventilating air to
be pumped through a shelter:

1 . Install two blast doors, one on each end of the
shelter, designed to be left open until the extremely
bright light from a large blast is seen. Figure D.14
shows a door held open by a prop-stick that can be
yanked away by the attached pull-cord. While
propped open, one blast door serves as an extremely
low-resistance air-intake opening, and the other
serves as an air-exhaust opening. A large KAP can
pump air at the rate of several thousand cubic feet per
minute through such open doors.

. When an attack is expected, each pull-cord
should be held by a shelter occupant who stays ready
at all times to yank out the prop-stick as soon as he
sees the light of an explosion. After the door has
fallen closed, the loop at the end of its wire bridle is
close to the upper hook of the load-binder and at the
same height (Fig. D.14). The person who closes the
door should quickly hook the upper hook of the load-
binder into the wire loop and pull down on the handle
of the load-binder. The door will then be-tightly shut.
(Sources during an emergency would be the millions
of load-binders owned by truckers and farmers.)

At distances from a large explosion where blast
wave and overpressure effects are not destructive
enough to smash most good expedient blast shelters,
there is enough time between the instant the light of
the explosion is seen and the arrival of its blast wave
for an alert person to shut and securely fasten a well-
designed blast door. The smaller the explosion and
the greater the overpressure range, the shorter the
warning time. Thus at the 15-psi overpressure range
from a 1-megaton surface burst (1.5 miles), the blast
wave arrives about 2.8 seconds after the light;
whereas at the 10-psi overpressure range from a I-
megaton surface burst (1.9 miles), the blast wave
arrives about 4.5 seconds after the light. For a 20-
megaton surface burst, the warning time at the 15-psi
range is about 8 seconds, and at the 30-psi over-
pressure range, about 4 seconds. Experiments have
shown that even people who react quite slowly can
close and secure this door within 4 seconds after
seeing a spotlight shine on the door without warning.

2. Build a vertical air shaft next to the outermost
side of each vertical entry, with an Overlapping-Flaps
Blast Valve (see Fig. D. 18) connecting each entry to its
air shaft, as shown in Fig. D. 19. These air shafts and
blast valves permit forced ventilation to be maintained
when the two blast doors are closed. Figure D. 18 illus-
trates the construction of a fast-closing expedient blast
valve, a design that was undamaged by the 65-psi shock
wave and other effects produced by the explosion of a
million pounds of TNT. When blast-tested in a shock-
tube at 100-psi, the flaps were undamaged; they closed
in 6/ 1000 of a second (0.006 sec.). This is as fast as the
best factory-made blast valves close.

ORNL DWG 73-2229A

Fig. D.18. Overlapping-Flaps Blast Valve,
made of boards, plywood, and strips cut from the
treads of worn car tires.

To withstand 50 psi, the load-bearing “2-inch”
boards (actually 1 ‘/2 inches thick) of the valve should
be at least 6 inches wide, if the 1 -in.-high air openings
are each made 12 in. wide, measured between two
vertical poles of a shelter entry. See Fig. D.19, that
gives the dimensions of a valve that has been blast
tested. 5 Note that there are 5 inches of solid wood at
each end of each 1 -in.-high air opening. If there are 5
such air openings to a valve, a properly installed K AP
(Appendix B) can pump air at about 125 cubic feet

ORNL— DWG 78- 144 29 R

8 in. Ol A.
ROLES.
FLATTENED
ON TWO SIDES

TOP OF BLAST
VALVE SHOULD
BE AT LEAST
3 ft BELOW THE
BLAST DOOR
ON ENTRY

2 in. -THICK
BOARD, A PART
OF THE VERTICAL
AIR DUCT. 19 X 10 m.
IN FRONT OF THE
VALVE

BRACE-BOARDS
PRESSING AGAINST
THE FACE OF THE
VALVE HOUSING
TO KEEP NEGATIVE
PRESSURE
FROM "SUCKING-
OUT THE WHOLE
VALVE

VERTICAL AIR DUCT
SHOULD EXTEND 2
OR 3 ft BELOW
BOTTOM OF BLAST
VALVE AND PREFERABLY
BELOW THE BOTTOM OF
THE VERTICAL ENTRY

Fig. D. 19. Installation of a 50-psi Overlapping-
Flaps Blast Valve in such a way that it will not be
blown into a shelter by the blast overpressure, nor
pulled out by the following negative pressure
(“suction”) phase.

per minute (125 cfm) through a shelter equipped with
such valves. This ventilation rate is ample for at least 40
people in cold weather. Except in hot and humid
weather, a constant air supply of about 10 cfm per
shelter occupant is enough to maintain tolerable
conditions during continuous shelter occupancy for
many days.

If a factory-made blower capable of pumping
more than 100 cfm is available, use it. Such a hand-
operated' blower can pump against mufcn’ mfenerku
flow resistances than a K.AP can. It can pump its
full-rated volume of outdoor air through a shelter
equipped with two Overlapping-Flaps Blast Valves,
one at each end of the shelter and each with only
2 air openings — providing a total of 24 square
inches of openings per valve. Equally or more
effective is a homemakeable Plywood Double-
Action Piston Pump, made and operated as
described in Appendix E.

Remember that a pressure of 7200 pounds
pushes against each square foot of the exposed face of

a blast valve when it is subjected to a 50-psi blast
overpressure. Also keep in mind that the “suction” that
follows can exert an outwardly directed force of up to
700 pounds per square foot on the valve face and can
yank it out of position unless it is securely installed.
Figure D. 19 shows how to securely install a blast valve.
(Merely nailing a blast valve in its opening will not
enable it to withstand severe blast forces.)

Note in Figure D.19 that an opening is
shown between the back edge of the uppermost
board of the Overlapping- Flaps Blast Valve and
the adjacent horizontal pole of the vertical entry.
Both this opening and the similar opening next
to the lowermost board of the Blast Valve should
be closed off with a stout board, to prevent blast
from going through these openings and on into
a vertical entry and the shelter room.

The top of an air shaft should be a few inches
higher than the earth piled around it, as are the
tops of the vertical entries of the Small-Pole
Shelter illustrated in Figure A.3.1 on page 174.
To minimize the amount of rain that may fall
into an air shaft, a shed-like, open-sided minia-
ture roof should be placed over it, a few inches
above its top. The roof can be lightly constructed,
since it will be blown away by a severe blast.

• Minimize aboveground construction and the
mounding of shielding earth. At high overpressure
ranges, the shock wave and the blast-wind drag can
wreck an aboveground shelter entry. For example, the
5-ft-high earth mound over a shelter built with its pole
roof at ground level was moved enough by 1-kiloton
air-blast effects at the 53-psi overpressure range to
break one of the poles of a blast-door frame. The forces
of a 1 -megaton explosion at the same overpressure
range would have operated 10 times as long, and
probably would have smashed the vertical entry ways of
this shelter. Whenever practical, a blast shelter should
be built far enough belowground so that the top of its
shielding earth cover is at ground level. Avoiding above-
ground construction and earth mounds also greatly
reduces the chances of damage from blast-hurled,
heavy debris, such as tree trunks and pieces of buildings.

Dry earth, steeply mounded over a shelter which is
subjected to blast winds from a big explosion, will be
mostly blown away. However, blast-wind “scouring” of
wet earth is negligible. The blast winds from a 1-kiloton
explosion at the 3 1-psi overpressure range scoured away
17 inches of dry, sandy soil mounded at a slope of 32°.

If it is impractical to build a blast shelter with its
roof belowground, good protection can be attained by
mounding even dry earth at slopes not steeper than 10°.

• Provide adequate shielding against initial nuclear
radiation. Good expedient blast shelters require a
greater thickness of earth cover than is needed on good
fallout shelters, for these reasons:

* Blast shelters should also protect against initial
nuclear radiation emitted by the fireball. This
radiation is reduced by half when it penetrates
about 5 inches of packed earth (as compared to
a halving-thickness of only about 3'/i inches of
earth against radiation from fallout).

* The initial radiation, in some areas where good
blast shelters will survive, can be much greater
than the fallout radiation is likely to be.

* Initial nuclear radiation that comes through
entry ways is more difficult to attenuate (reduce)
than fallout radiation. Therefore, longer entry-
ways or additional right-angle turns must be
provided.

For these reasons, good blast shelters should be
covered with at least 4 ft of well-packed, average-weight
earth, or 5 ft of unpacked or light earth. (A 3-ft
thickness gives excellent protection against radiation
from fallout.)

A 50-PSI SMALL-POLE SHELTER

This expedient blast shelter is described in detail to
enable the reader to build this model. The details will
help him better understand the design principles of
other expedient blast shelters that are capable of
preventing injuries from blast effects severe enough to
destroy all ordinary buildings and kill the occupants.
Blast tests and calculations have indicated that the
Small-Pole Shelter described and illustrated in Appen-
dix A. 3 will afford protection against all weapon effects
at overpressure ranges up to 50 psi that are produced by
an explosion of 1 megaton, or larger, provided the
shelter is:

• Made with horizontal entryways each with
ceilings no higher than 7 ft, 2 in., no wider than 3 ft,
and each at least 10 ft long — to lessen the radiation
coming through the entries (see Fig. D.20). Lower
and narrower entryways would give better protection
but would increase the time required for entry.

• Constructed with a floor of poles that are 4 in. or
more in diameter, laid side-by-side, with the wall
poles resting on the floor poles. The ground shock
and earth pressures at a depth of 10 ft or more
resulting from an overpressure on the surface of more
than about 35 psi, if caused by a large explosion, may
destabilize and squeeze earth upward into the shelter
through an unprotected earth floor. The Small-Pole
Shelter described in Appendix A.3 has an earth floor.

• Installed in an excavation about 13 feet deep,
with the shelter’s vertical entrances appropriately
increased in height so that the blast doors are only
about one foot above the original ground level.

To prevent possibly life-endangering cave-
in of the 13-foot-deep trench that was dug for the
blast testing of this model shelter, the trench
walls were sloped about 45 degrees. The shelter
was built as a braced, free-standing structure,
and then covered. During a crisis it would be
impractical to safely excavate a deep trench
with steeply sloping walls and then safely build
a shelter in it. A 13-foot-deep trench is usually
too deep to dig by hand — especially since to dig
it with safely sloping walls requires the removal
of a large amount of earth.

OKNL-DWG 78 1 883b

WATERPROOF "BURIED ROOF

GROUND LEVEL• **-

CLOTH OR PLASTIC

BAGS OF
-EARTH-

IN DOOR,
~ WAV'"

SUMP

DRAINAGE DITCH

SHELTER ROOM

ENTRY 11 ft

BLAST DOOR
4 3/4 in. THICK
PLYWOOD

BLAST PROTECTOR
LOG

COVER • i iV:Y:

CRUSHABLE MATERIAL 6 in. THICK ON ROOF

A ,T

S «•

<?• O

<o O

* «

Fig. D.20. Entryway of Small-Pole Blast Shelter shielded against initial nuclear radiation. This
sketch is a simplified vertical section through the centerline of one end of the shelter.

• Made with 4 rectangular horizontal braces in
each vertical entry, in addition to the ends of the two
long, ladder-like braces. The detailed drawings in
Appendix A show such braces. The lowest rectangu-
lar brace should be positioned 3 V 2 feet above the
flooring at the bottom of the vertical entry (see Fig.
D.20).

• Equipped with blast doors each made of 5 sheets
of ’ 4 -inch exterior plywood (sec Fig. D.I5) bonded
with resin glue and nailed together with 4'/2 in. nails.
The nails should be driven on 4-in. spacings and their
protruding ends should be clinched (bent over). The
blast doors must be secured against being yanked
open by negative pressure (“suction”) by securing

them with a strong wire bridle (see Fig. D. 14), and
with the lower, fixed wire strongly connected near the
bottom of the entry to all of the vertical poles on one
side, as shown in Fig. D. 14.

• Provided with an adequate ventilation pump
and with ventilation openings protected against blast
by expedient blast-valves (Fig. D. 18) installed in the
vertical entries as shown in Fig. D.19, to protect the
air-intake and the air-exhaust openings. (Ventilation
openings should be as far as practical from buildings
and combustible materials. Manually closed ventila-
tion openings are NOT effective at the 50-psi
overpressure range of most weapons, because there is
insufficient time to close them between the arrival of

the warning light from the explosion and the arrival
of the blast wave.)

• Made with the roof poles covered by a yielding
layer of brush or limbs about 6 inches thick, or of
innerspring mattresses. This yielding layer in turn
should be covered with bedsheets or other strong
cloth, to increase the effectiveness of protective earth
arching. Brush or limbs should be laid in 3 layers with
sticks of the middle layer perpendicular to those of
the other two layers.

• Covered with 5 feet of earth, sloped no steeper
than 10°.

• Provided with additional shielding materials in
the entryways, as shown in Fig. D.20. Such shielding
would be needed to prevent occupants from receiving
possibly incapacitating or fatal doses of initial
nuclear radiation through the entryways at the 50-psi
overpressure range, if the shelter is subjected to the
effects of a weapon that is one megaton, or larger, in
explosive yield.

Damp earth serves better for neutron shielding
material than dry earth and can be substituted for
water as shielding material if sufficient water
containers are not available. (At the 50-psi over-
pressure range from explosions smaller than one
megaton, the entry and shielding shown in Fig. D.20
may not provide adequate protection against initial
nuclear radiation.)

When the shelter is readied for rapid occupancy,
the shelter-ventilating KAP is secured against the
ceiling, and the bags of earth in the doorway (under
the KAP) are removed. Persons entering the shelter
would stoop to go under the platform adjacent to the
vertical entry. This platform is attached to vertical
wall-poles of the horizontal entry and supports
shielding w'ater and earth. When all except the person
who will shut and secure the blast door are inside the
shelter room, occupants should quickly begin to
place bags of earth in the doorway. When the attack
has begun, the whole doorway can be closed with
bags of earth or other dense objects until ventilation
is necessary.

The entries of other types of blast shelters can be
shielded in similar ways.

• Protected against fire by being built sufficiently
distant from buildings and flammable vegetation and
by having its exposed wood covered. For maximum
expedient protection against ignition by the thermal

radiation from a large explosion, all exposed wood
should be free of bark, coated with wet mud or damp
slaked lime (whitewash), and covered with aluminum
sheet metal or foil to reflect heat. (Most of the
thermal radiation from an explosion that was
1 megaton or larger would reach the 50-psi over-
pressure range after the blast wave had arrived and
had torn the expedient protective coverings from the
wood. However, as has been observed in megaton
nuclear weapon tests, the dust cloud first produced by
the popcorning effect and later by the blast winds
would screen solid wood near the ground so
effectively against thermal radiation that it would not
be ignited, provided it had been initially protected as
described above.)

PRECAUTIONS FOR OCCUPANTS
OF BLAST SHELTERS

Although a well constructed blast shelter may be
undamaged at quite high overpressure ranges, its
occupants may be injured or killed as a result of rapid
ground motions that move the whole shelter several
inches in a few thousandths of a second. Rapid
ground motions are not likely to cause serious
injuries unless the shelter is in an area subjected to 30-
psi or greater blast effects. T o prevent possible injury,
when the occupants of high-protection blast shelters
are expecting attack they should avoid:

• Having their heads close to the ceiling. The “air
slap” of the air-blast wave may push down the earth
and an undamaged shelter much more rapidly than a
person can fall. If one’s head were to be only a few
inches from the ceiling, a fractured skull could result.

• Leaning against a wall, because it may move
very rapidly, horizontally as well as vertically.

• Sitting or standing on the floor, because ground
shock may cause the whole shelter (including the
floor) to rise very fast and injure persons sitting or
standing on the floor. The safest thing to do is to sit or
lie in a securely suspended, strong hammock or chair,
or on thick foam rubber such as that of a mattress, or
on a pile of small branches.

In dry areas or in a dry expedient shelter, ground
shock may produce choking dust. Therefore, shelter
occupants should be prepared to cover their faces
with towels or other cloth, or put on a mask. If an
attack is expected, they should keep such protective
items within easy reach.

Appendix E

How to Make and Use a Homemade
Plywood Double- Action Piston Pump and Filter

THE NEED

Ventilating pumps— mostly centrifugal blowers capable of operat-
i ng against qui te h igh resistance to airflow —are used to force outdoor
air through most high-protection-factor fallout shelters and through
al most all permanent blast shelters. Low-pressure ventilating devices,
including ordinary biaded fans and homemade air pumps such as
KAPs and Directional Fans, cannot force enough air through a
permanent shelters usual air-supplv system consisting of pipes, or of
pipes with a blast valve, a filter, and the valves needed to maintain a
positive pressure within the shelter.

Manually cranked centrifugal blowers, or blowers that can either
be powered by an electric motor or be hand-cranked, are the
preferred means of ventilating permanent shelters from Switzerland
to China. The main disadvantages of efficient centrifugal blowers are:

1. They are quite expensive. For example, in 1985 a good American
hand-cranked blower, that pumps only about 50 cubic feet per minute
1 50 cfm) through a shelter's pipes, blast valve and filter, retails for
around $250. An excellent foreign blower that enables one man to
pump somewhat larger volumes sells for about twice as much.

2. Not enough centrifugal blowers could be manufactured quickly
enough to equip all shelters likely to be built during a recognized
crisis threatening nuclear attack, and lasting for weeks to several
months.

Therefore, there is need for an efficient, manually operated, low-
cost ventilating pump that:

1. Can pump adequate volumes of outdoor air through shelter-
ventilating systems that have quite high resistances -up to several
inches water gauge pressure differential.

2. W ill be serviceable after at least several weeks of continuous use.

3. Can be built at low cost in home workshops by many Americans,
usingonlv materials available in most towns.

4. Could be made by the millions in thousands of shops al! over the
U.S.. for mass production during a recognized prolonged crisis, using
only plywood and other widely available materials.

To produce such a shelter ventilating pump, during the past 20
years I have worked intermittently designing and building several
types of homemade air pumps. However, until I was traveling in
China as an official guest in October 1982 and saw a wooden double-
action piston pump being used. I did not conceive or come across a
design that 1 was able to develop into a shelter-ventilating pump that
meets all of the requirements outlined above. Now I have made and
tested a simple homemade Plywood Double- Action Piston Pump,
described below, that satisfies these requirements. Three other
persons have used successively improved versions of these instructions
to make this model, and several others have contributed improvements.

HOW A PLYWOOD DOUBLE-ACTION PISTON PUMP
WORKS

Fig. 1 pictures the box-like test model described in these instructions.

Fig. 1. Plywood Double-Action Piston Pump, with manometer
attached for tests.

Fig. 2 illustrates a vertical section through a slightly improved
model, and shows the 12x 12-in. plywood piston being pushed from
right to left, causing air from the outdoors to be “sucked” down the
open air-supply duct in the top of the pump, then down to the right
through the open valve in the airtight frame (that is above and near
the right end of the PARTITION), and on down into the lower-
pressure area behind the leftward-moving piston.

Because the air to the right of the leftward- moving piston is at a
lower pressure than the air in the shelter room, the exhaust valves in
the front end (the handle endXof the pump are held closed.

During this half of the pumpi ng cycle, the higher-pressure air in the
part of the pump’s square “cylinder” to the left of the leftward-moving
piston opens the air-exhaust valves in the back end of the pump, and
fresh air is forced out into the shelter room. The higher-pressure air to
the left of the valve in the airtight frame (that is above the left end of
the PARTITION) keeps this valve closed, while the lower-pressure
air to the right of this valve helps keep it closed.

When the piston is pulled to the right, all of the valves shown closed
are quickly opened, and all shown open are quickly closed. Then fresh
air is forced into the shelter room through the opened exhaust valves
in the front end of the pump.

6 x 6- IN. DUCT, INSIDE

_OSED^

K *

m ft-
co 2

=> 3

cr co

3/4

Fig. 2. Vertical Section of the Double- Action Piston Pump showing its square piston being pushed to the left.

PERFORMANCE TESTS

The volumetric and durability tests summarized below are proof
that this homemade Plywood Double- Action Piston Pump is better
than most hand-cranked centrifugal blowers for supplying a shelter
with outdoor air through typical air-intake and exhaust pipes—
especially when the ventilation system contains a filter and/or blast
valves. The filters that give the best protection. Chemical Biological
Radiological (CBR) Filters, have quite high resistance to airflow, as
do commercial blast valves that close quickly enough to protect filters.

1. Volumetric tests. Because the rapidly pulsating airflows into
and out of a piston pump are very hard to measure accurately with an
air velocity meter, I made an inflatable cylindrical bag of 2-mil (0.002
inch) polyethylene film; the fully inflated volume of this bag was 256
cubic feet. The bag was suspended on a horizontal strong cord
running through its length. A short tube 62 inches in circumference
connected the back end of the pump (that is opposite the operator’s
end) to the suspended bag. Bag and pump were in a below ground
shelter that normally has essentially motionless air. See Fig. 1.

Since this type of pump exhausts equal volumes of air from each of
its two ends, the total cubic feet per minute (cfm) that it pumps equals
twice the cfm that it exhausts into the shelter from one of its ends. See
Fig. 1. that shows the pump attached with “C" clamps to a small steel
table and being used to pump air into the 256 cubic foot suspended
bag.

I measured the pressure differences against which the pump was
operated. In a shelter these differences typically are caused by the
resistance to airflow in pipes, valves, and a filter. I measured pressure
differences in inches water gauge (1 in. w.g. = 0.036 psi) with the
small-tube manometer attached to the side of the pump. To produce
various pressure differences for several tests, I nailed a piece of
plywood over the top of the air-intake duct, so as to produce different
sized openings: in most tests I placed different layers of filter
materials in a filter box that was fitted airtight over the 6 x 6-in.
air-supply duct on the top of the pump. See Fig. 3. (This low-resistance
filter removes practically all fallout particles of wartime concern, and
also most infective aerosols that may be used in biological warfare.
See "Making and Using a Homemade Filter Box and Filter", by
Cresson H. Kearny. October 1985.

Fig. 3. Pump with Homemade Filter (20 x 20 x 8-inches inside
dimensions) connected airtight on top of the pump’s 6 x 6-inch
air-intake duct.

The best centrifugal blowers that I have seen or heard about are
those manufactured by a Finnish company, Temet Oy. (I cranked a
Temet Oy blower in an Israeli shelter used for testing ventilation
equipment: the Finnish centrifugal blower was better than Swiss.
German and captured Russian blowers also undergoing tests.) There-
fore. in Table 1 a few of the volumetric testsof my best model Plywood
Doubie-Action Piston Pump (powered by one and two men) are
compared with performance data furnished by Temet Oy for its
centrifugal blower when cranked by two men. I have converted
Temet Oy’s metric units into the common American units.

In Table 1 the pressure difference of 4.3 inches water gauge is the
resistance to airflow that Temet Oy realistically gives as typical of a
well designed shelter ventilation system of pipes, valves and blower
plus a Chemical Biological Radiological (CBR) filter. Temet Oy gives
2.0 inches water gauge as typical of the same ventilation system
with only a low resistance dust filter. The much larger volume
pumped by the Double-Action Piston Pump when a CBR filter is

CUBIC

PRES. FEET

TYPE OF DIFF. PER HORSE-

PUMP (in. w.g.) MINUTE POWER

Double-Action

Piston Pump
one man

4.9

134

?

two men

4.3

182

7

Temet Oy

Centrifugal Blower
two men

4.3

90

0.15

Double-Action

Piston Pump
one man

2.3

172

9

two men

2.3

208

?

Temet Oy

Centrifugal Blower
two men

2.0

300

0.18

Table 1. Comparison of Plywood Double- Action Piston Pump with
Temet Oy Centrifugal Blower.

used (as compared to the cfm pumped by this very good centrifugal
blower) is typical of the reduced effectiveness of even the best
centrifugal blowers at high pressure differences.

In areas devastated by a nuclear explosion, the typical very
dusty conditions are likely to result in filters soon becoming dirty
and higher in resistance to airflow. Then the greater effectiveness
of a piston pump for ventilating a shelter with a high-resistance
air-supply system will be even more important than when its filter
is clean.

The horsepower requirements of my pump have not yet been
measured. However, based on the calculated air pressure on the 12
x 12-in. piston of 22.3 lbs. when the pressure difference was 4.3 in.
w.g. (0.155 psi), when two pumpers were making 52 strokes
(cycles) per minute while pumping 182 cfm. the horsepower
delivered was about 0.14 HP without allowing for friction and the
losses of power due to reversals in the directions of piston
movements. I estimate that the actual horsepower delivered by the
two pumpers (I. a 69 year old with a stiff back in 1983. and a
15-year-old boy) was somewhat less than 0.2 HP. A man in good
condition can work for hours delivering 0.1 HP.

When comparing machines powered by human muscles, what
muscles are used and how they are used are often as important as
are the horsepower requirements. Leg muscles are more efficient
and are much stronger than arm muscles. Arm muscles are used
much more in cranking a blower than in pushing and pulling the
piston of a properly designed reciprocating piston pump back and
forth horizontally. See Fig. 3. If this double-action piston pump is
placed at a height above the floor so that its handle is approxi-
mately at the height of a standing operator’s elbows, then the
operator can do most of the work with his legs. See Fig. 3. He
efficiently moves his body back and forth for over a foot, while
moving his hands and forearms horizontally for slightly less than a
foot relative to his body. To deliver the same horsepower by
cranking a blower uses less efficient muscles inefficiently, and is
much more tiring.

As shown in Table 2. the volumetric efficiency of my best model
is good for a shelter-ventilating pump. The volumetric efficiency
of a piston pump (a positive displacement pump) is found by
dividing the cfm actually pumped by the theoretical maximum
cfm at the same pumping rate and the same pressure difference,
assuming all piston strokes are full length, that all valves open and
close instantaneously, and that there is no leakage. Table 2 shows
that the greater the pressure difference, the lower the efficiency—
as one would expect, because of increased leakage.

PRES. STROKES

DIFF PER

(in. w.g.) MINUTE cfm EFFICIENCY

4.0

36

122

84.0%

2.6

45

160

89.0%

0.7

51

188

92.0%

0.4

54

202

94.0%

0.2

55

208

94.5%

Table 2. Volumetric Efficiencies of Double-Action Piston Pump
Operated by One Man.

2. Durability tests. Finding a homemakeable method to seal the
moving piston so as to assure at least one month of continuous
efficient pumping was the most difficult problem. Various rubber
seals attached to the edges of the piston were unsatisfactory, and
aluminum sheetmetal strips (shaped and attached like the gal-
vanized steel sheetmetal strips used in this model) wore out in less
than a week, even when oiled every 24 hours.

To save money during weeks of continuous durability testing,
the pump wasoperated by an electric motor that powered a pulley
drive that turned a 2-foot-diameter pulley having an attached
40-in. -long steel pitman with a hinged connection to a horizontally-
sliding bar connected to the handle of the pump’s wooden piston
rod. See Fig. 4.

Fig. 4. Mechanized Drive Used in Weeks-Long Durability Tests.

After pumping for 380 hours (15.83 days) at 44 strokes per
minute against a pressure differenceof 2.3 in. w.g.. the worst worn
spot on any of the 30-gauge steel sheetmetal sealing strips on the
piston was reduced in thickness from its original 0.0155 in. to
0.0145 in. This worst-spot wear of 0.001 in. is only about a 6%
reduction in thickness. The flap valves functioned as well as when
new. and appeared unworn.

I conclude that this pump would be serviceable after several
months of continuous use— provided it is lubricated after every 24
hours of actual use. as in this durability test. In this test I
lubricated the piston, its “cylinder’s” four walls, and its rod with
Lubriplate No. 105. "the original white grease”. This non-sticky
"grease-type lubricant" is used extensively, especially to lubricate
internal combustion engines before first starting up. Another
builder of this model pump found Siloo White Lube, an all-purpose
lithium grease, the best of the lubricants that he tested. Judging
from mv prior durability tests, a very lightoil applied daily serves
reasonably well. Ordinary bearing grease is unsatisfactory.

MATERIALS

The following materials (that cost about $65. retail in 1985) are
needed to make and operate the best model of this pump:

Plywood. 3/4-in. exterior: one 4 x 8-ft. sheet (finished on one side,
un warped).

Plywood. 3/8-in. exterior: l/4th of a 4 x 8-ft. sheet (finished on one
side, unwarped). (Second choice: 1/4-in. exterior plywood).

Oak board. 3/4 x 1-3/4 in., straight, well seasoned, 4 ft. long, to
make the piston rod. (If oak or other very strong wood is not
available, use a straight fir or pine board.)

Fir or pine board, about 3/4 x 1-3/4 in.. 8 ft. long, to make the
piston-rod handle, etc.

28-gauge or lighter galvanized -steel flashing (sold by lumber
yards for roofers), no thicker than 0.016 in.: or galvanized steel
or flashing no thinner than 0.012 in. Or 30 gauge galvanized
steel sheetmetal available in some sheetmetal shops. (Sheet-
metal thicker than 0.016 is not springy enough for making this
pump’s near-equivalent of piston rings.) Best to go to a sheet-
metal shop and have3stripscut.each 3 in. wide and about 30 in.
long.

Screws, round-headed, zinc-piated wood screws:

22 each of No. 12 (2-in. long. 12/32 in. dia.). with flat washers

10 each of No. 10 ( 1-1/2 in. long, with flat washers)

15 each of No. 6 (3/4 in. long, with flat washers)

Nails, 4-penny (1-1/2 in.), best cement-coated: 1/4 lb.

Nails. 3-penny (1-1/4 in.), galvanized: 1/4 lb.

Staples (if an oak board for the piston rod is not available). No. 17.
3/4-in., galvanized)* 1/4 lb.

Tacks. No. 6 upholstery. (1/2-in. long): a small container.

Tacks. No. 3 upholstery (3/8-in. long): a small container.

F’elt. weather stripping. 5/8-in. wide: 10 ft.

Tape, silver duct tape. 2-in. wide: a small roll.

Tape, masking tape. 3/4-in. wide: a small roll.

Adhesive, waterproof: "Liquid Nails”, or other all purpose con-
struction adhesive: one approx. 11-oz. tube (for use in caulking
gun).

Epoxy. 5-minute: 2 tubes.

Rubber cement: a small tube.

Sealer (such as polyurethane clear finish, to reduce absorption of

011 or other lubricant of the “cylinder"): 1/2 pint.

Plastic film, transparent storm-window type (such as 4-mil Flex-
O-Glass. by Warp Bros.): 3 sq. ft.

Grease-type lubricant, an all-purpose motor-breakin lithium
grease such as “Siloo White Lube” or “Lubriplate No. 5 Space Age
Lubricant”: two approx. 10 oz. tubes.

Inner tube rubber, heavy truck or auto (cut from an old tube): 1 sq.
ft.

FUNCTIONAL RELATIONS OF PARTS
Look at Figs. 2. 5. and 6. In Figs. 5 and 6. the lower, fixed part of
the front end is pictured below the piston rod. The piston rod slides
back and forth orr the center of the fixed part of the front end (as
indicated more clearly in Fig. 7). and in the notch in the removable
part of the front end.

Fig. 5. Front End of the Durability Test Pump, showing the lower
fixed part (below piston rod) and the upper removable
part, that is held by 6 screws with flat washers. Felt
weather-stripping makes the removable part airtight.

Fig. 6. Pump Built by Dale Huber, of Lake City. Florida in his home
workshop, while guided only by the second draft of these
repeatedly improved instructions. The removable part of the
front end has l>een taken off. to insert the piston into the 12 x
12-in. “cylinder" under the PARTITION. The plastic flaps of
this pumps flap valves are black: transparent plastic film is
preferred.

Fig. 8. Back End. Only the plywood is shown.

Note that a single plastic-film
flap covers each pair of 2 x 4-in.
valve holes, and that, as shown in
Fig. 2 (that gives a side view of all
six flaps), all flaps open away
from the vertical center-plane of
the pump.

In Fig. 5 the removable (upper)
part of the front end is shown in
place, secured by six round-head
screws with flat washers. In Fig.
7 note the pair of 2 x 4-in. flap-
valve holes above the piston rod.

In Fig. 6. the removable part of
the front end has been removed,
exposing the 26-in. -long. hori-
zontal PARTITION that serves
as the top of the 12 x 12-in.
“cylinder”, in which the piston
can make a 24-in. -maximum-
length stroke. Also see Figs. 2
and ?. Fig. 6 also shows the piston
while it is being removed and one
of the two rubber bumpers (made
of inner tube rubber)on its piston
rod.

The back end of the “box" is
made of one piece of plywood, as
shown in Fig. 8. The two plastic
flaps of its exhaust valves each
cover two 2 x 4-in. valve holes,
that are positioned the same as
the four valve holes in the front
end.

Fig. 7. Front End (Operator’s End) of Plywood Double-Action Piston Pump. The two 4 x 12-in. valve
frames are shown by dashed lines, as is the 12 x 26-in. PARTITION.

CYLINDER

CUTTING OUT THE PLYWOOD PARTS

1. The four parts of the “cylinder” (its bottom, two sides, and the
PARTITION; see Fig. 7) should be made with the wood grain of the
plywood running in the same direction as the lengths of these parts.
This reduces piston friction.

2. Outline on a sheet of exterior 3/4-in. plywood all of the plywood
parts— except for the 12 x 12-in. piston and the two 12 x 12-in.
construction forms, which are made of 3/8-in. exterior plywood. (If
3/8-in. plywood is not available, use 1/4-in.) Do not assume that the
corners of a sheet of plywood are truly square. Also check the width of
the sawcut of the saw to be used, and allow for this width when
drawingadjacentoutlinesof partson the plywood. Be sure to make all
corners square.

3. If you do not have a table saw that saws accurately, or a heavy-
duty saber saw, you will do well to pay a professional carpenter or
cabinet maker to saw out the plywood parts— and also the piston rod if
you are making it out of an oak board. A professional can accurately
saw out all of the plywood parts and the 10 valve holes in about 2 hours,
provided you have accurately outlined all saw lines.

4. Make the following plywood rectangles with tolerances of + or -
1/32 in.:

PARTITION. 12 x 26-in/

Two sides, each 16-3/4 x 32-in. (If your “3/4-in. plywood” actually is
less than 11/16-in. thick, make the height of each of your sides
16-3/4-in. less the difference between 3/4-in. and the actual
thickness of your plywood. See Fig. 7.)

Bottom. 17-1/2 x 32-in.

Top. 13-1/2 x 32-in.

Two valve frames, each 4 x 12-in.

Piston. 12 x 12-in. (of 3/8-in. plywood).

Two construction forms, each 12 x 12-in. (of 3/8-in. plywood).

5. Make the following plywood rectangles with tolerances of + or -
1/16 in.:

Back end. 13-1/2 x 17-1/4-in. (See Fig. 8.)

Removable (upper) part of front end. 13-1/2 x 10-7/8 in. (See Figs. 7
and 9.)

Fixed (lower) part of front end. 13-1/2 x 6-3/8-in. (See Figs. 7 and 10.)
The four parts of the air-intake duct: two each 6-1/2 x 6-in.: two each
6-1/2 x 7-1/2-in.

Two spacers (to be nailed to the bottom) each 3/4 x 3/4 x 32-in.

6. Saw out the 10 valve holes; a tolerance of + or - 1/8 in. is good
enough. (See Figs. 7. 8. 9. and 10.)

7. Saw a square 6 x 6-in. hole in the center of the top. as shown in
Fig. 2 — if you are going to install the homemade filter (described in
separate instructions) directly on top of your pump. (To connect your
pump to a round air-intake pipe, cut an appropriate round hole in the
top.)

8. Sandpaper the finished sides of the PARTITION, the two sides,
and the bottom, to reduce friction on the reciprocating piston. Use fine
sandpaper.

9. Make and attach the 6 valve flaps, to complete the flap valves,
that are the lowest resistance, quickest acting type tested.

a. Makea3-3/4 x 5-3/4-in. cardboard TEMPLATE, usingcarbon
paper to transfer lines of Fig. 11 to cardboard. (See Fig. lion page?.

Fig. 9. Removable Part of Front End. Unfinished. Only the plywood
is shown.

•* 13- 1/2 *-

— Z-* -» — 4 -»j|-|/2|_ — 4 — ,-p 2 .-»

ft

fO CM

Ji

Fig. 10. Fixed Part of Front End. Unfinished. Only the plywood
is shown.

and note that this TEMPLATE outlines the right half of the 3-3/4 x
11-1/2-in. plastic-film flap.) Also transfer the dashed tack-line and
mark the ends of the 4 horizontal stop-string lines. Drill 8 smail holes
through the cardboard at the ends of the 4 stop-string lines, so that you
can use a pencil to mark these points on plywood.

b. Use your TEM PLATE to mark around the 2 x 4- in. valve holes
in plywood parts: (1) the positions of the ends of each hole’s 8 stop-
strings. (2) the right side-edge and the bottom-edge of each flap after
it is attached, and (3) the tack-lines.

c. Drill a 1/16-in. diameter hole through the plywood at each
point marked for an end of a stop-string.

d. With nylon kite string (or other nylon string about 1/16-in. in
diameter, such as 50-lb- test nylon fishing line) and a big enough
needle, string the "four” stop-strings across each 2 x 4-in. hole. (Use a
string long enough to make "four” uncut stop-strings.) Start on the
unfinished, back side of the plywood, on the opposite side from the
future valve flap. To secure the starting end. wrap the string around a
half-driven tack, and then drive it in. Keep pulling the string tight as
you thread it through the holes and as you wrap its finishing end
around a half-driven tack. Finally epoxy the string in all of the holes,
on the back side of the ply wood. (An equally strong nylon string can be
made by twisting together 4 pieces of waxed nylon dental floss.)

(Stop-strings also can be positioned by using No. 3 upholstery
tacks in place of the 1/1 6-in. diameter holes. Drive a tack partly in.
wind the string around it wjiilepullingthestringtight.anddrive the
tack completely in. to hold the string securely. Finally, coat the tack
heads and the adjacent plywood with a smooth covering of adhesive, to
provide a smooth seat for the valve flap.)

e. Cut out 6 plastic flaps of transparent 4-mil plastic film (each
3-3/4 x 11-1/2 in.). The easiest way to accurately cut a flap of thin
plastic film is to make a cardboard template 3-3/4 x 11-1/2-in., place it
on the film, and cut around it with a very sharp knife.

f. In preparation for attaching a flap over each pair of 2 x 4-in.
valve holes, cover the plywood above each pair of holes with masking
tape, up to the straight “tack line” that you already have drawn 1/2 in.
above each hole. Use your cardboard TEMPLATE. The masking
tape will prevent the adhesive (that will be used to attach each valve
flap) from being applied too near the 2 x 4-in. holes, where adhesive
would keep a flap from opening fully.

g. Position each of the 6 flaps properly in its closed position, with
its lower edge on the line that you already have used the TEMPLATE
to draw 3/4 in. below each flap’s pair of 2 x 4-in. holes. Position its
right side-edge on the line already drawn 1 in. from the right side of
the right hole of each pair of 2 x 4-in. holes. Then put masking tape
over the lower edge of each flap and the adjacent plywood, to hold the
flap temporarily in its closed position.

h. Gently fold down the upper part of each flap, so that the
plywood above its pair of 2 x 4-in. holes is uncovered (except where you
have placed the protective tape), and place small pieces of masking
tape so as to hold each flap temporarily in this folded-down position.

i. Quickly apply a thin coat of all-purpose construction adhesive
(such as Liquid Nails) to a 1/2-in. -wide plywood area above the
protective masking tape that covers the plywood up to the “tack line”
1/2 in. above each pair of 2 x 4-in. valve holes. Then promptly detach
the small pieces of masking tape holding the flap in its folded-down
position, and turn the flap (the lower part of which is still being held in
its proper closed position by masking tape) into the whole flap's closed
position. Press the upper part firmly against the approximately 1/2-
in.-wide coating of adhesive, to secure the valve in its proper closed
position. Allow several hours for the adhesive to harden before
removing the tape and using the valve.

j. Drive small tacks (No. 3: 3/8 in.) on the "tack line” (see
TEMPLATE), to make sure the flap stays securely attached after
long use. (Very small tacks are easily driven if held with tweezers or
needle-nosed pliers.)

PUTTING THE PUMP “BOX” TOGETHER

1. The following procedure is the best tested construction method
for persons who lack experience in putting parts together so that all
corners are exactly square, or who do not have the big clamps and
other glueing equipment used by cabinet makers. This procedure is
best carried out by two persons working together.

2. On the finished side of the top. draw two parallel lines exactly 12
in. apart and parallel to the top’s 32-in. -long edges. Each of these lines
will be3,/4-in. from an edge. Alsodraw a line 6 in. from and parallel to
each end of the top. to mark the positions of the two valve frames. See
Fig. 2.

3. Build the pump’s “box" upside down; start by placing its top on
the floor, as indicated by Fig. 12.

Fig. 12. Parts of the Pump "Box”, with Dimensions in Inches. The Roman numbers give the best tested order for
attaching these parts to each other.

4. Attach the two valve frames II and III to the top I with
construction adhesive, positioning each of them 6 in. from an end of
the top I. Make sure that each frame’s flap valve is upside down and
facing away from the center of the pump. Remove any adhesive
that is on the top beyond the ends of the valve frames.

( When usi ng construction adhesive to make this pump, it is best to
apply a rather thin coat to only one of the two plywood surfaces to be
joined. Then promptly rub one plywood part slightly back and forth
against the other, while pressing them together— thus making sure
that both surfaces are coated and in close’ contact. Wait until the
adhesive sets and bonds adequately before attaching more parts.)

5. Draw two parallel lines on the unfinished side of the PARTITION,
each 3 inches from one of its ends. Adhere the two 12-in. -long
unattached edges of the valve frames to the PARTITION on these two
lines, as illustrated by Figs. 2. 7 and 12. Allow time for the adhesive to
set.

6. Before permanently attaching side V. position it vertically with a
long edge resting on the top. and with a side-edge of the PARTITION
and ends of the two valve frames I and II in contact with the finished
side of side V. See Fig. 7. On the unfinished (outer) side of side V draw
lines showing the positions of the PARTITION and of the two valve
frames in contact with the finished side of side V.

7. Preparatory to attaching side V to the PARTITION and to the
two valve frames, drill 4 slightly oversize screw holes (for your 2-in.
roundhead screws) through side V. Drill these holes so that a screw
will go into an end of each valve frame about 1 in. from its adhered
edge, and the other 2 screws will go into the side-edge of the
PARTITION, at points above the valve frames. Next, with side V
temporarily in its final position, drill with a smaller diameter drill
through the 4 holes in side V. into the PARTITION and into the two
valve frames. Then with the 4 screws temporarily connect side V. the
PARTITION, and the two valve frames, and. while checking with a

carpenter’s square the squareness of the angle between the PARTI-
TION and side V. adjust the two pairs of screws to attain squareness.
Remove side V.

8. Apply adhesive to the 3/l-in.-wide area along the long edge of the
top, and if necessary a thicker coating of adhesive than normal to
unattached edges of the PARTITION and of the two valve frames.
Then promptly position side V. and by again screwing in and
adjusting the 4 screws, make the angle between the PARTITION and
side V square. Allow the adhesive to set

9. Use short pieces of duct tape to temporarily attach the two 12 x

12- in. construction forms to the PARTITION and to side V. (Before
using these forms, drive 4 small nails into each form, near its corners,
to serve as handles for removing them from the completed “cylinder”)
Attach a construction form near each end of the PARTITION.

10. Adhere the finished side of side VI to the top, to the unattached
side-edge of the PARTITION, and to end-edges of the valve frames,
while keeping side VI pressed against the two square construction
forms. To keep side VI pressed against the construction forms until
the adhesive sets, use small nails to temporarily nail two small boards
horizontally across the ends of the sides, at each end of the “box”.

11. On the finished side of the bottom IX, draw two parallel lines

13- 1/2-in. apart, making each line 6-3/4-in. from the center line of the
bottom, as shown in Fig. 7. Nail the two 3/4 x 3/4 x 32-in. spacer
boards VII and VIII to the bottom. 13-1/2-in. apart.

12. To attach the bottom, first place it (with its finished side down)
on the exposed long-edges of the sides. If you find that the bottom rests
on the construction forms and is not in contact with the long-edges of
the sides, in effect increase the heights of the sides by coating with
adhesive both the edges of the sides and the 3/4-in. -wide area of the
bottom to which the sides will be adhered. Then adhere the bottom
onto the edges of the sides. Before the adhesive hardens, remove any
that has been squeezed into the corner of the “cylinder".

CENTER LINE OF FLAP

Fig. 11. TEMPLATE for Positioning the Stop-Strings of each of the 12 valve holes, and for attaching each of the 6 valve flaps.

TRACE THIS DRAWING. TO MAKE THE WORKING
TEMPLATE, TRANSFER THE TRACING TO A PIECE OF
CARDBOARD. CUT OUT THE 2 X 4-INCH HOLE IN THE
CARDBOARD, AND MAKE SMALL HOLES SHOWING
THE POSITIONS OF THE STOP-STRINGS AND TACKS.

13. Permanently attach the fixed part of the front end X (see Fig. 7.
10 and 12) with adhesive and small nails to the sides and to the bottom.
Be sure that its flap valve is upside down and is facing away from
the center of the pump, and that a long edge of this part is level with
the outer side of the bottom. Remove the construction forms.

14. Paint the interior of the “cylinder" with sealer— after removing
all adhesive that may be in its corners.

15. After the sealer dries, sandpaper the interior of the “cylinder"
with fine sandpaper, and paint it again with the final coat of sealer.

16. To attach the removable part of the front end XI. stand the “box”
on its completely open end and drill slightly oversize screw holes (for
your 2-in. screws) clear through the removable part of the front end.
as indicated by Fig. 9. With the flap valve facing outward,
temporarily attach this part with a few small nails to the end of the top
and to ends of the two sides. Then with a smaller-diameter bit. drill
the screw holes deep enough into the top and the sides so that the 7
screws will hold securely.

17. So that it will be unnecessary to tightly screw on the removable
part of the front end in order to make its repeated temporary
attachments airtight, tack felt weatherstripping (best 1/8-in. thick
and 5/8-in. wide), or strips made of two thicknesses of flannel, to the
contact edges of the top and the sides. No. 3 (3/8-in.) carpet tacks
serve well. Then with a razor blade carefully cut the felt covering the
screw holes in the edges, and remove these small pieces of covering
felt.

18. Attach with screws the removable part of the front end.

19. To prevent damage to the front-end valve flaps when you stand
the pu mp on its front end. epoxy a small piece of 3/8-in. plywood to the
front end. near each of its four corners, as pictured in Figs. 3 and 5.
Before standing the pumpon its front end, use small piecesof masking
tape to temporarily secure its valve flaps in their closed positions.

20. Attach the back end X-II . using only screws. See Fig. 8. (For
repairs, the back end may have to be removed.) To make the
attachment of the back end airtight, coat its attachment “crack" only
with rubber cement.

MAKING THE PISTON. THE PISTON ROD. AND ITS
HANDLE

1. Have a shcetmetal shop cut three 3-ft.-long. 3-in.-wide strips of
galvanized steel sheetmetal that is no more than 0.016-in. thick and
no less than 0.012-in. thick. ( Most galvanized steel valley flashing used
by roofers and sold by many lumber yards is less than 0.016-in. thick;
30-gauge galvanized sheet metal sold by some sheetmetal shops is
about 0.015-in. thick.) Steel sheetmetal thicker than about 0.016 in. is
not springy enough and is unsatisfactory.

2. With a tolerance of + or - 1/32-in., cut from these strips two strips
each 11-13/16-in. long, and two strips each 11-3/4-in. long. (These four
strips first must be bent and then tacked to the four sides of the
plywood piston; these piston-sealing strips serve rather like piston
rings, by making close, sliding, low-friction contact with the sides of
the plywood “cylinder”. Steel strips resist wear and if properly
lubricated make the pump serviceable for months of continuous use.)

3. Preparing the four sheetmetal sealing strips:

a. Since the strips to be tacked to the top and the bottom of the
piston must be bent differently from the strips to be tacked to its two
sides, mark “T or B” on each of .he two strips that are 1 1-13/16 in. long,
and mark “S" on each of the two strips that are 11-3/4 in. long.

b. On each of the two strips marked “T or B”. draw an ink line
along which to make the approximately 30 degree bend, and another
line for the approximately 90 degree bend. (See the left half of Fig. 13
for the distances from the edges of these two “T or B” strips to their
bends.) Also draw two ink lines along which to drive tacks, spaced as
shown in the left half of Fig. 13.

Likewise draw four lines on each of the two strips marked “S".
as specified in the right half of Fig. 13. noting that some of these lines
are spaced differently than corresponding lines on the strips marked
“T or B".

c. Using a small sharpened nail for a punch and placing one strip
of sheetmetal at a time on a s. iooth board, punch 2 rows of tack holes
in each strip. The tack holes should be about 1-1/2 in. apart.

d. From a nominal 1 x 2-in. straight board, make two boards
each about 3/4 x 7/8 x 12-1/4 in., for use in bending the sealing strips.

e. Securely sandwich a “T or B” strip of sheetmetal between the
two 12-l/4-in.-long boards placed exactly on top of each other, by
tightening two “C" clamps on the ends of the two boards, so that the
bending line 3/8-in. from one side of the strip is just visible along the
straight edge of a board. Then hold the two clamped boards in a vise so
that the 3/8-in.-wide part of the sheetmetal strip is uppermost and
vertical.

f. Bend the exposed part of the strip about 30 degrees off the
vertical, away from the side of the strip where the holes have been
indented by the punch. To bend evenly, hammer gently and repeatedly
on a 3/4 x 3/4 x 18-in. board held against the exposed 3/8-in.-wide part
of the strip.

PISTON ROD
SIDE OF PISTON

1/4 IN. P_YWOOD

A TOP OR
BOTTOM
SHEETMETAL
STRIP

(11-13/16 IN. LONG)

A SIDE

SHEETMETAL

STRIP

(11-3/4 IN. LONG)

Fig. 13. Piston Sealing Strips, each made of a springy sheetmetal
strip 3 in. wide.

g. With the sheetmetal strip held sandwiched between the two
12- 1/4-in. -long boards by the two “C” clamps and the vise, so that the
bending line for the almost 90-dcgree bend is barely visible, bend the
exposed part of the strip 90 degrees, in the same direction that the
3/8-in.-wide part was bent. See Figs. 13 and 14.

Fig. 14. Plywood Piston with Sheetmetal Sealing Strips Attached.

h. Bend the other "T or B” strip, and similarly bend each of the
two “S” strips.

4. Attach the four sheetmetal sealing strips to the plywood piston
with No. 6 tacks ( 1/2-in. long). Place on a solid metal surface the part
of the plywood piston opposite the spot to which part of a strip is being
tacked, so that when a tack is hammered in its point is clinched (bent
over) on the far side of the 3/8-in.-thick plywood piston, by being
hammered against the solid metal surface.

a. First tack a “T or B" sheetmetal strip to the top of the piston,
and a “T or B” strip to its bottom.

b. Then tack the two “S” strips to its sides. The strips should fit
together so as to make square corners. If adjacent ends of two strips do
not fit neatly together, cut bit by bit a very little off the end(s) of a
stripts) so that the two adjacent ends fit together neatly at their
corner.

c. To prevent air leakage between the ends of the sealing strips,
put rubber cement in the four corner “cracks” between strips. (This
was not done on the test pump’s piston:)

5. For the piston rod. saw from a straight, well-seasoned oak
board a 3/4 x 1-3/4 x 36-1/2-ir.. board. Sandpaper it smooth. (A piston
rod made of well-seasoned oak is less likely to break if abused, but
necessitates using screws, in place of nails and staples, for attachments.
Piston rods made of nominal 1 x 2-in. fir boards were undamaged in
the tests.)

6. To complete the piston rod:

a. For the handle, use 4 pieces of a nominal 1 x 2-in. board cut to
the lengths shown in Fig. 15. Also see Fig. 16. Round all edges and
corners, to minimize the chances of the operators' blistering their
hands.

b. Paint the piston rod and its handle with sealer. When dry.
sandpaper. Then apply a final coat of sealer.

c. Use adhesive, screws, and nails (or adhesive and nails if your
piston rod is of soft wood) in making the handle illustrated by Fig. 15.

Fig. 15. Piston Rod Handle Made of 3/4 x 1-3/4-in. Boards.

Fig. 16. The Pump Handle of the Durability-Test Pump, showing
how one man best holds it when two men are pumping.

d. To reduce friction on the piston rod and resultant enlargement
of the piston-rod hole with long use. coat with epoxy all four sides of
the piston-rod hole. Sec Figs. 7 and 16. Be sure that the piston rod
si ides snugly yet freely in its hole when the removable part of the front
end is screwed in place.

e. From a piece of thick truck-tire inner-tube rubber, cut a 2-in.-
wide strip 12-in. long. To make the 2-in.-wide rubber bumper (see
Figs. 15 and 16). connect one end of this rubber strip to the center of a
3/4-in. -wide side of the piston rod. Do not place any screw or staple in
the strip closer than 1 in. from the strip’s forward edge, that may
repeatedly bump into the front end. Wrap and attach the strip quite
tightly around the piston rod next to the handle. (If you have only a
piece of passenger-car inner-tube rubber, then to make a 2-in. -wide
bumper use a 4-in. -wide strip of this thinner rubber folded double
lengthwise.)

7. Attaching the piston rod to the piston:

a. On the back of the 12 x 12-in. plywood piston, mark lines to
enable you to attach the piston rod as pictured in Fig. 14. Note that the
lower side of the piston rod is exactly 5-1/2 in. above the lower edge of
the plywood of the piston, and that the center line of the piston rod
intersects the vertical center line of the plywood of the piston.

b. To the end of the piston rod (see Fig. 14) adhere and screw (or
adhere and nail if your piston rod is not oak)two pieces of nominal 1 x
2-in. boards each 3 in. long. Each of these twosmall boards and theend
of the piston rod are in contact with and securely connected to the
plywood piston, and form a perfect “T” at the end of the piston rod.

c. Connect the piston rod to the piston, best with epoxy (or
adhesive) and small screws. Make sure that : ( 1 ) the four piston scaling
strips overlap the piston's plywood in thedireetion of the piston rod. (2)
the l-3/4-in.-wide sides of the piston rod are parallel to the top and
bottom of the piston, and (3) the piston rod is perpendicular to the
piston. See Figs. 2 and 14.

d. Make and attach to the piston rod a 3-in.-long rubber bumper,
positioned close to the piston as shown in Fig. 2.

OPERATING THE PUMP

1 . Check to see that the four sheet metal stripson the four sides of the
piston all make even contact with the wallsof the “cylinder" when the
piston is moved back and forth. If the piston does not slide back and
forth quite easily even when not lubricated, carefully bend a strip or
strips so that they press less against the "cylinder” walls. If while
someone is shining a flashlight through a valve opening in the other
end of the pump you observe that parts of a sheetmetal strip do not
make close contact with a “cylinder” wall, gently bend outward that
part of the strip.

2. Lubricate all four walls of the "cylinder”, the sheetmetal strips
that slide against the walls, and the piston rod. Use a very thin
motor-breakin white lithium grease (not an ordinary bearing grease,
that is too sticky). Or use a thin oil. The pump should be lubricated
after no more than each 24 hours of use. and before being used again
after days of disuse.

3. Install the pump at a height above the floor so that most of the
persons who are going to pump can push and pull with their hands
moving at about the same height that their elbows are when they are
standing. See Fig. 3 for an exampleof a pump-supportingtable raised
to an efficient height for operators who are the height of the pumper
pictured.

4. To save work and to minimize wear on the pump, usually operate
it with a length of stroke a little shorter than the distance between its
two rubber bumpers. To save energy especially when pumping air
through a high resistance ventilation system, move the piston back
and forth by using mostly your leg and body muscles.

PROLONGED STORAGE

Wipe off all grease and other lubricants if you do not plan to use this
pump for months. All lubricants— especially those on wood— tend to
become gummy with time.

Keep your supply of pump lubricants taped to your pump.
REQUEST

Suggestions for improving this pump and/or these instructions will
be appreciated, and may contribute to improvements likely to save
lives.

Cresson H. Kearny

Copyright © 1986 by Cresson H. Kearny

No part of this work (except brief passages that a reviewer may
quote in a review) may be reproduced in any form unless the
reproduction includes the following statement: “Copyright © 1986 by
Cresson H. Kearny. All or part of this information on the Plywood
Double-Action Piston Pump may be reproduced without obtaining
permission from anyone."

FILTER BOX AND FILTER

PURPOSES

The primary shelter ventilation requirement is to supply enough
outdoor air to maintain endurable heat-humidity conditions.

To keep the concentration of respiratory carbon dioxide low enough
for survival, very little fresh outdoor air is required. Even for an
infant or an infirm person remaining in a crowded shelter for days, 3
cubic feet per minute (3 cfm) is adequate. For a healthy adult or child
1.5 cfm is enough. Too much carbon dioxide, not too little oxygen, is
the initial cause of unendurable conditions in inadequately ventilated
shelters in which the air does not get unendurably hot.

In contrast, up to 25 cfm of outdoor air per occupant may be needed
to maintain endurable heat-humidity conditions inside a crowded
shelter occupied for days during a heat wave in a hot. humid part of
the U S. Hence the need for a large-volume ventilating pump, best
with a low-resistance filter.

If outdoor air flows into a shelter through a hood, gooseneck pipe, or
other air-supply opening that causes all but tiny fallout particles to
fall out before the air reaches shelter occupants, breathing this
unfiltered air will not result in short-term radiation casualties.
However, a very small fraction of the occupants of a shelter supplied
with unfiltered air in an area of heavy fallout may contract cancer
years later as a result of breathing shelter air containing tiny fallout
particles, that a properly designed filter could have removed.

Air that has been in contact with fallout particles before being
filtered is not radioactive.

The homemade filter illustrated below, if used with an efficient
"suction" pump such as the Plywood Double-Action Piston Pump
described separately, will remove practically all fallout particles
likely to cause casualties even decades later. This filter also will
remove most infective aerosols, the air-borne tiny particles used in
biological warfare — an unlikely type of attack on the United States.
It will not remove poisonous gasses, an even less likely danger to
Americans if all-out war befalls us.

CONSTRUCTION
Filter Box

If 20 x 20-inch furnace filters are available, use plywood or boards
to build the filter box shown in the illustration. To make permanent
connections airtight, first use waterproof construction adhesive or
glue, and then tape. (If only smaller filters are available, reduce the
horizontal dimensions of the box accordingly, except for the top and
bottom openings.) Check to be sure that your filters will fit snugly in
the box of the size you plan to build.

The square frame on the bottom of the filter box should fit snugly
over the square air-intake duct on the top of your Plywood Double-
Action Piston Pump. Tape the cracks to make theconnection airtight
and to permit easy removal of the filter box.

Make the illustrated 4 supports of the hardware cloth no thicker
than 3/4 inch, thus providing enough space below the filter for low-
resistance airflow. (Hardware cloth is a stiff, square-mesh, molten-
dipped galvanized wire.)

Make the square top of the filter box so that it covers the upper
edges of the box’s sides and can be easily removed. Then cut in its
center a round hole slightly smaller than 4 inches in diameter. File the
hole’s edges so that a 4-inch-diameter can (such as a coffee can with its
top and bottom cut out) fits snugly in this hole. To connect the can
securely and airtight, first use waterproof construction adhesive or
epoxy, and then tape. (If construction adhesive or epoxy is not
available, cut a 2-1/2-inch-diameter hole in the center of the bottom of
the 4-inch-diameter can. Then make radial cuts spaced about one-half
inch apart, out to the full diameter of the can. Bend these tabs outward
180 degrees, preparatory to tacking them with small tacks to the
bottom of the filter box top. Tape airtight.)

So that the top of the filter box can be easily removed, tape it onto its
box. A roll of duct tape should be kept with the filter box and pump at
all times.

To connect the filter box to the shelter’s air-intake pipe, the best
widely available air duct is the inexpensive. 4-inch-diameter flexible
duct used with clothes dryers.

Homemade Filter To Fit On Plywood Double- Action Piston Pump, and To Be Connected to a 4-Inch-Diameter Air-Intake Pipe.

Filter Materials

Furnace or air-conditioner dust filters, those made of oiled fiber-
glass fibers, will remove practically all but the very smallest fallout
particles. Filters that are sold in box-like housings can easily be
installed so that all the pumped air will passthrough them, by taping
them to the inner sides of the filter box. The illustration shows two
plain matsof furnace filter material, each taped around its edges. (If
commercial dust filters are not available, bath towel cloth will serve.
However, in very dusty areas a cloth filter may become overloaded,
thus seriously reducing the rate of airflow much sooner than if an
oiled fiber filter is used as a prefilter.)

To filter out most of the tiny particles that may pass through one or
more furnace filters, place two thicknesses of bath towel on top of the
filter-support made of hardware cloth, and tape them around their
edges to the box. See illustration.

Tests by U.S. Army specialists have shown that filtering air
through two thicknesses of bath towel removes about 85 percent of
even microscopic aerosols as small as 1 to 5 microns in diameter. (See
"Emergency Respiratory Protection Against Radiological and Bio-
logical Aerosols”, by II. G. Guyton et al., A.M.A. Archives of
Industrial Health. Vol. 20, July through Dec. 1959.) This is the size of
most infective aerosols used in biological warfare. In most of an area
subjected to a biological attack, if 85 percent of this size-range of
infective aerosols and practically all larger particles are removed,
then most persons breathing this filtered air will not receive enough
infective agents to infect and sicken them.

Persons w'ho are especially desirous of protecting their shelter’s
occupants against biological warfare aerosols, but w’hocan not afford
or obtain expensive High Efficiency Particulate Air filters (HEPA
filters), should consider using disposable pleated air filters that meet
official ASHRAE standards. One 2-in. pleated air filter, measuring
19-1/2 x 19-1/2 in., will remove over 90 percent of particles in the
1. 0-5.0 micron range, yet when clean its resistance to an airflow of 200
cfm is only about 0.2 in. water gauge (about 0.007 psi). Its cost is about
twice that of a good ordinary furnace filter of the same size. However,
it has approximately three times the life of a standard panel type filter
before becoming overloaded. Disposable pleated air filters are avail-
able in larger cities.

USE

The illustrated homemade filter has such low resistance to airflow
that, when up to about 200 cfm is being pumped through it by a
Plywood Double- Action Piston Pump, the air volume is decreased by
only about 10 percent, as compared to the volume pumped with no
filter in the ventilation system. With a homemade Plywood Double-
Action Piston Pump, up to approximately 200 cfm can be pumped
through this filter even when the total difference in air pressure
(caused by the ventilation pipes, a dirty filter, etc. that restrict
airflow) is high, about 5 inches water gauge (0.18 psi).

Even if the United States suffers an all-out Soviet attack, only a
small partof its area will besubjected to blast effects severe enough to
injure the occupants of fallout shelters. (Fallout shelters are not
designed to withstand blast, but especially typical earth-covered ones
afford consequential blast protection.) In contrast, an installed filter,
unless protected by an efficient blast valve, will be wrecked by a quite
low-pressure blast wave that comes down its open air-intake pipe
—even if the small part of the blast wave that would enter the shelter
room through its open ventilation pipes is not nearly powerful enough
to injure the shelter occupants. Thus unprotected installed filters will
be wrecked in an area several times as large as the area in which
occupants of fallout shelters will be injured by blast.

To be sure of having a filter in good condition, you can:

1. Make and keep in your shelter an extra complete filter, ready to
replace your installed filter if it is damaged, or if it becomes
overloaded with dust and its resistance to airflow becomes too high.
Furthermore, if your filter is installed in your shelter room and
becomes so radioactive with retained fallout particles that it is
delivering a consequential radiation dose to shelter occupants, it is
advantageous to be able to remove it, pitch it out, and install a
replacement filter. (To be able to supply your shelter with unfiltered
air in peacetime or after the end of consequential fallout danger, you
should make and keep ready a duct with appropriate fittings to
connect your pump directly to its air-intake pipe.)

2. Ifyou have only one filter, do not install it before you need to filter
the air supply. Connect your pump directly to the air-intake pipe,
using an appropriate duct and fittings. Then before the attack and
before the arrival of fallout (revealed by your fallout-monitoring
instrument), keep your shelter well ventilated with unfiltered air.
Whether or not your fi Iter is installed, stop ventilating your shelter for
a few hours while heavy fallout is being deposited outside — unless
heat-humidity conditions become unbearable. If before shelter ventila-
tion is stopped the shelter air does not contain an abnormally high
concentration of carbon dioxide, then no outdoor air need be supplied
for about 5 hours to prevent building up too high a concentration of
respiratory carbon dioxide — provided there is about 70 cubic feet of
shelter-room volume for each occupant.

AN ENCOURAGING REMINDER

Persons making preparations to improve their chances of surviving
an all-out attack should realize that if the United States is hit with
warheads the sizes of those in the 1987 Soviet intercontinental arsenal,
the fallout particles of critical concern will be much larger than the
extremely small particles (1 to 5 microns in diameter) which are not
completely removed'by this filter. F allout particles this small produced
by large nuclear explosions do not fall to the ground for many days to
months after the nuclear explosions, by which time they have become
much less radioactive. Essentially all of the larger particles can be
removed merely by filtering the air through a few thicknesses of bath
towel cloth.

Appendix F

Means for Providing Improved Natural Ventilation and
Daylight to a Shelter with an Emergency Exit

THE NEED

Survivors in areas of heavy fallout can
greatly reduce the radiation doses that they will
receive, and thus decrease their risks of con-
tracting cancer, if they sleep and spend many of
their non-outdoor-working hours inside good
shelters during the first several months after an
attack. (See Minimizing Excess Radiogenic Cancer
Deaths After a Nuclear Attack, by Kathy S. Gant
and Conrad V. Chester, Health Physics, Sep-
tember 1981.)

A permanent family shelter can serve quite
well for months as a post-attack temporary
home if it is designed to provide adequate
natural ventilation most of the time, to have
adequate and easy forced ventilation by a KAP
when forced ventilation is needed, and to have
daylight illumination. A shelter dependent on
ventilation laboriously pumped through pipes
and on artificial lights even during daytime is
much less practical for use as a post-attack
home.

The following instructions should enable a
family having an earth-covered shelter with an
emergency exit to make it much more livable
for months-long occupancy. The means de-
scribed below for providing improved ventila-
tion and daylight illumination also will supply
guidance to survivors who will build shelters
post-attack to minimize continuing radiation
exposures, especially to children and pregnant
women.

BUILDING AND USING A MULTI-PURPOSE
EMERGENCY EXIT HOUSING

Build a multi-use emergency exit housing
of the design pictured in Fig. F.l and detailed in

Fig. F.2. Size your exit housing to fit snugly
over the top of your completed vertical exit
shaft. This exit housing is made of 3/4-inch
exterior plywood, four 2 x 2 x 36-inch boards,
and four 16 x 16-inch window panes of 1/ 8-inch
Plexiglas. Plated screws and waterproof ad-
hesives are used to assure sturdiness and
durability.

Fig. F. 1. Multi-U se Emergency Exit Housing
Installed Over the Square Emergency Exit
Described by Figs. 17.1, 17.2, and 17.3.

The adjustable top of this exit housing
measures 4x4x1 feet, and can be tilted to make
different sized ventilation openings in any of
four directions. The top also can be raised
straight up to make various sized openings all
the way around, or it can be completely closed —
as explained by Fig. F.2 and the following
descriptions of its uses.

Fig. F.2. Plan and Side View of Multi-
Purpose Emergency Exit Housing, on a Square
Emergency Exit with 34 x 34-Inch Cross-
Sectional Outside Dimensions.

In Figs. F.2 and F.3, note the eight bevelled
plywood guides, two on the inside of each side of
the top. These guides are needed so that the top
can be tilted in the position desired, merely by
using a stick to raise it from below. To hold the
top in a tilted or raised position, spacer boards
are placed between the raised top and the upper
edges of a wall or walls, as illustrated by Fig.
F.4.

Fig. F.3. The Top and Four Walls of the
Multi-Purpose Emergency Exit Housing, Nested
Together to Save Storage Space.

Fig. F.4. View from Below the Exit, Looking
Up the Multi-Purpose Emergency Exit Housing.
The top is shown supported in a tilted position
by two 6-inch-wide boards placed between a
wall and the top.

The illustrated housing over a vertical exit
provides:

* A means to regulate shelter ventilation,
and to increase natural ventilation when the
wind is blowing. If, for example, the shelter’s
opened exit is to the north of its opened entry
and a north wind is blowing, shelter airflow will
blow in through the exit and out through the
entry. This natural ventilating airflow, often
inadequate, is increased if the adjustable top of
the exit housing is not simply raised 6 inches on
all four sides, but is tilted as shown in Fig. F.l,
with its south side closed and its north side
tilted up 6 inches to provide a 6 x 26-inch
ventilation opening between the upper edge of
the entry housing’s north wall and its top. Then
a north wind striking the north wall produces

increased air pressure over and above this wall,
forcing more air into the exit and on through the
shelter. In contrast, if a south wind is blowing,
natural airflow will go in through the shelter’s
entry and out through its exit. And if the ad-
justable top still is tilted open to the north as
illustrated, then reduced air pressure over and
above the downwind north wall will “suck” an
increased airflow out of the exit and through the
shelter.

The measured increases in airflows through
a small shelter resulting from the top of this exit
housing being tilted were only 40-50 cfm when
an 8-10 mph breeze was blowing. These rather
small increases in airflow, however, often would
make it unnecessary to supply forced ventilation
to a family shelter by intermittently operating a
KAP.

* Exclusion of rain, snow, and larger dust
and fallout particles. The four 12 x 48-inch
vertical sides of the adjustable top overhang the
exit housing’s walls by 6 to 12 inches. Thus the
top serves as a large ventilation hood over the
exit, preventing rain, snow, and larger dust and
fallout particles from entering while ventilation
is continuing. (To prevent entry of flies and
mosquitoes, an insect screen panel, made to fit
over the bottom of the emergency exit, should be
kept stored in the shelter until needed. A screen
door for the inner entry doorway also should be
stored. Remember that installing screens greatly
reduces natural ventilation airflows.)

* A reliable source of daylight. The four 12 x
12-inch windows of this exit housing let enough
daylight into the exit shaft, that is painted
white, to permit a person on the shelter floor
below to read, even for several minutes after
sunset. See Fig. F.4.

* A way to observe what is going on all
around the shelter, without having to go outside,
and with lessened exposure to fallout radiation.

* Quick installation post-attack, after fallout
decays sufficiently. In an installation test, dirt
was dug away to expose the upper 12 inches of
the emergency exit shaft. Then in just 8 minutes
the author and a boy carried the 5 parts of this
exit housing 80 feet, positioned its four walls
around the already exposed upper 12 inches of
the reinforced concrete emergency exit, nailed
its walls together, and placed its adjustable top
in the tilted position pictured in Fig. F.l.

BUILDING AND USING AN ENTRYWAY
COVER THAT PROVIDES A LARGE,
PROTECTED VENTILATION OPENING

Build a shelter entryway cover that keeps
out rain, snow, and the bigger dust and fallout
particles while providing a large, protected
ventilation opening both for natural ventilation

and for easy forced ventilation by a KAP when
needed. For an example of one type of entry way
cover, see Fig. F.5. This photo shows a 4-piece
cover, that two men in a little less than 5
minutes carried out of this shelter and installed
over the 4 x 6-foot opening above the shelter’s
opened stairway doors.

Fig. F.5. A Quickly Installable, 4-Piece
Entryway Cover That Provides Easy Access
and a Large, Protected Ventilation Opening.

This cover is made of 4 pieces of 1/4-inch
chipboard, each 5 feet wide, and short lengths of
nailed-on 1 xfJ-inch boards. These 4 pieces can
be tied quickly with their attached nylon cords
to inner parts of the two 2 x 6-foot steel entry way
doors, which are pictured in their opened, up-
right positions.

The lowermost of the 4 chipboard pieces has
a groove near each end. The grooves are each
made of 2 nailed-on lengths of 1 x 2 lumber
spaced apart to fit the lower ends of the doors
and hold them in their upright positions 4 feet
apart. The upper edge of this lowermost piece is
8 inches below the lower raised corners of the
doors, so that an 8 x 48-inch ventilation opening
is assured when the lower of the two large
covering pieces (pictured being held open) rests
on the doors. (This step-over piece of chipboard
illustrates a way to reduce the quantity of larger
fallout particles that will be blown into many
types of shelters, because most sandlike parti-
cles and coarse dust are blown along close to the
ground. They are not blown upward and over a
vertical obstruction by most winds. If an entry-
way has an inner, ordinary doorway, even more
fallout particles can be kept out of the shelter
room if an 18 x 18-inch ventilation hole i«.o.ntirv

the door near its top. Then air entering the
shelter room will have to rise at least 4 feet
above the entry way floor, and most of the larger
fallout particles will be deposited on the entry-
way floor.)

The chipboard piece attached
to the upper ends of the doors
also has two 1x2 boards nailed
near each end, forming grooves
into which the upper ends of the
doors fit. The doors are thus held
in their upright positions and
rain, etc. is kept from falling or
being blown through the upper
end into the entryway.

The uppermost of the two
large covering pieces of chip-
board (or exterior plywood) rests
on the opened doors and is kept
from slipping down by a 1 x 2-
inch board nailed 4 inches from
its upper end. This small board
“hooks” over the upper edge of
the piece of chipboard (or ply-
wood) attached to the upper ends
of the steel doors. (See the draw-
ing on the side of this column.)

This large piece of chipboard is
securely tied to the doors.

To keep the two large pieces
from moving sideways, one 1 x
2-inch board is nailed near each
of their side edges, spaced so as
to lie against the outside of each
opened, upright steel door. To
strengthen the hingeline edge of
the upper large covering piece,
a 1 x 2-inch board is nailed along
its lower edge.

The lower of the two large covering pieces
also has a reinforcing 1x2 nailed near its
hinged edge.

The most practical hinge that the author
has devised is illustrated by the drawing. This
flexible hinge is much less likely to be broken
than are conventional hinges, and makes it
easier to build the two large covering pieces to
fit over the opened doors. Note that the upper
edge of the lower large piece goes under the
rainproofing, 6- inch-wide rubber flap, which is
nailed only along the lower edge of the upper
large covering piece. Then the two large pieces
are held and hinged together by first stretching
each of 2 strong, 2-inch-wide rubber bands (or
rustproof springs) attached by cords to the
upper large covering piece, and then hooking
its attached bent-wire hook onto a nylon cord
loop connected to the lower large covering
piece. Each strong rubber band (cut from a truck
innertube) and its attached hook and nylon
cords is 5 inches from an opened door. Thus
hinged, the lower large piece can be easily
raised to permit a person to step out of or into
the stairway entry. When this hinged lower
large piece is closed and tied down, a 2.7 square
foot protected ventilation opening with a 10-
inch overhang results.

OTHER ENTRYWAY COVERS TO PROVIDE
LARGE PROTECTED OPENINGS FOR
NATURAL AND KAP VENTILATION

The owner of a permanent shelter with an
emergency exit may be able to improvise cover-
ings over its entry and exit after fallout decays
sufficiently to permit work outdoors — provided
that he understands natural ventilation and
low-pressure forced ventilation requirements,
and has the boards, nails, pieces of chipboard or
plywood or canvas, tools, etc. needed. But if you
own a permanent shelter your pre-crisis prepara-
tions surely should include making and storing
ready-to-install entry way and exit coverings of
whatever designs you decide will best meet
your anticipated needs for high-protection-
factor sleeping and living quarters during weeks
or months following a nuclear attack.

Selected References

1. Radiobiological Factors in Manned Space
Flight, Space Radiation Study Panel of the Life
Sciences Committee, Space Science Board, National
Academy of Sciences, National Research Council,
1967.

2. Personal communication with Dr. C. C.
Lushbaugh, Chairman, Medical and Health Science
Division, Oak Ridge Associated Universities, in June
1977.

3. The Effects of Nuclear Weapons, 1962,
Samuel Glasstone, Editor, published by U.S. Atomic
Energy Commission, April 1962.

4. “Adequate Shelters and Quick Reactions to
Warning: A Key to Civil Defense,” Francis X. Lynch,
Science, Vol. 142, pp. 665-667, 1963.

5 . Blast Tests of Expedient Shelters in the DICE
THROW Event, Cresson H. Kearny and Conrad V.
Chester, Oak Ridge National Laboratory Report No.
5347. February 1978.

6. The Effects of Nuclear Weapons, 1977, Third
Edition, Samuel Glasstone and Philip J. Dolan,
Editors, U.S. Department of Defense and U.S.
Department of Energy, 1977. This most authoritative
publication has numerous sections written for non-
technical educated readers. In 1986, a cloth-bound
copy can be purchased for SI 7.00 from the Superin-
tendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing
Office, Washington, D.C. 20402. When ordering, ask
for The Effects of Nuclear Weapons, 1977, Stock No.
008-046-00093-0. (Since the price may be increased in
future years, a buyer should first write requesting the
current price.)

7. The 900 Days, Harrison E. Salisbury, Harper
Row, New York, N.Y., 1969.

8. Expedient Shelter Construction and Occu-
pancy Experiments, Cresson H. Kearny, Oak Ridge
National Laboratory Report No. 5039, March 1976.

9. Biological Tolerance to A ir Blast and Related
Biomedical Criteria, Clayton S. White et al.,
Lovelace Foundation for Medical Education and
Research, Albuquerque, N.M., April 1965.

10. Instrument Requirements for Radiological
Defense of the U.S. Population in Community
Shelters, Carsten M. Haaland and Kathy S. Gant,
Oak Ridge National Laboratory Report No. 5371,
August 1978.

1 1 . Field Testing and Evaluation of Expedient
Shelters in Deeply Frozen Ground, Ren Read,
College of Environmental Design, University of
Colorado, Denver, Colo., July 1978.

12. “Construction of Hasty Winter Shelters,”
Cresson H. Kearny, Annual Progress Report, Oak
Ridge National Laboratory Report No. 4784, March
71-March 72, December 1972.

1 3. Shelter Occupancy Studies at the University
of Georgia, Final Report, J. A. Hammes and Thomas
R. Ahearn, OCD Contract No. OCD-PS-66-25,
1966.

14. “Environmental Physiology of Shelter
Habitation,” A. R. Dasler and D. Minard, paper
presented at the ASHRAE Semiannual Meeting in
Chicago, January 1965.

15. Studies of the Bureau of Yards and Docks
Protective Shelter, NRL Report 5882, U.S. Naval
Research Laboratory, Washington, D.C., December
1962.

16. Winter Ventilation Tests, Guy B. Panero,
Inc., Subcontract No. B-64212-US for Officeof Civil
Defense, February 1965.

17. “Interim Standards for Ventilating Systems
and Related Equipment for Fallout Shelters,” Office
of Civil Defense, Washington, D.C., 1962.

18. Response to DC PA Questions on Fallout,
DCPA Research Report No. 20, prepared by
Subcommittee on Fallout, Advisory Committee on
Civil Defense, National Academy of Sciences,
November 1973.

19. Personnel Shelters and Protective Con-
struction, NAVDOCKS P-81, Department of Navy,
Bureau of Yards and Docks, September 1961.

20. The Destruction of Dresden, David Irving,
Wm. Kimber and Co., London, May 1963.

21. Chinese Civil Defense, excerpts from Basic
Military Knowledge, Shanghai 1975, ORNL/tr-
4171, edited by Conrad V. Chester and Cresson H.
Kearny, Oak Ridge National Laboratory translation,
August 1977.

22. The Effects of Mass Fires on Personnel in
Shelters, A. Broidoand A. W. McMasters, Technical
Paper 50, Pacific Southwest Forest and Range
Experiment Station, Berkeley, Calif., August 1960.

23. Civil Defense, N. I. Alabin, et al., Moscow
1970, ORNL/ tr-2793. Oak Ridge National Labora-
tory translation, December 1973.

24. Manual of Individual Water Supply Sys-
tems, Environmental Protection Agency, Water
Supply Division, Washington, D.C., 1973.

25. “Solubility of Radioactive Bomb Debris,”
D. C. l.insten, et al., Journal of American Water
Work Association, 53, pp. 256-62, 1961.

26. Maintaining Nutritional Adequacy During
A Prolonged Food Crisis, Kay B. Franz and Cresson
H. Kearny, Oak Ridge National Laboratory Report
No. ORNL-5352. July 1979.

27. Livestock, Fallout and a Plan for Survival,
W. F. Byrne and M.C. Bell, UT-AEC Agricultural
Research Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tenn., R-CD-3,
April 1973.

28. “Availability and Shipment of Grain for
Survival of the Relocated Population of the U.S.
After a Nuclear Attack,” Carsten M. Haaland,
American Journal of Agricultural Economics, May
1977.

29. Personal Communication with Kathy S.
Gant and Conrad V. Chester, January 1979.

30. Food Stockpiling for Emergency Shelters,
Food and Materials Division, Commodity Stabiliza-
tion Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, April
1961.

31. The KFM, a Homemade Yet Accurate and
Dependable Fallout Meter, Cresson H. Kearny, Paul
R. Barnes, Conrad V. Chester, and Margaret W.
Cortner, Oak Ridge National Laboratory Report
No. ORNL-5040 (corrected), January 1978.

32. Where There Is No Doctor, David Werner,
Hesperian Foundation, Palo Alto, Calif., 1977.

33. Personal communications from Colonel C.
Blanchard Henry, M.D., Binghamton, N.Y., to
Cresson H. Kearny in 1963.

34. Emergency Medical Treatment, TM-11-8,
Federal Civil Defense Administration, U.S. Govern-
ment Printing Office, April 1953.

35. .“The Radiation Studies Begin,” Science,
Vol. 204, p. 281, 1979.

36. Protection of the Thyroid Gland in the
Event of Releases of Radioiodine, National Council
on Radiation Protection and Measurements, NCRP
Report No. 55, Washington, D.C. 20014, August 1,
1977.

37. Accidental Radioactive Contamination of
Human and Animal Feeds and Potassium Iodide as a
Thyroid- Blocking Agent in a Radiation Emergency,
Food and Drug Administration, Federal Register,
December 15, 1978, pp. 58790-58800.

38. Civil Defense, N. I. Akimov et al., Moscow,
1969, ORNL/tr-2306, Oak Ridge National Labora-
tory translation, April 1971.

39. “Frantic Team Efforts Brought Vital Chem-
ical to Stricken Plant,” Robert Reinhold, New York
Times, April 4, 1979, p. A 16.

40. Trans-Pacific Fallout and Protective Coun-
termeasures, Cresson H. Kearny, Oak Ridge Na-
tional Laboratory Report No. 4900, November 1973.

41. Letter dated May 23, 1979 from William H.
Wilcox, Administrator, Federal Disaster Assistance
Administration, Washington, D.C. to Robert A.
Levetown, Washington Representative of the Ameri-
can Civil Defense Association.

42. Historical Instances of Extreme Over-
crowding, Bureau of Social Science Research, Inc.,
Report No. 354-5, March 1963.

43. After-Action Report, Operation Labora-
tory Shelter, Headquarters U.S. Army XXIV
Airborne Corps, Ft. Bragg, N.C., 1970.

Selected Index

Definitions and explanations of terms are given on the listed pages. Because some terms are
mentioned on up to 55 different pages, all pages on which some terms are listed are not included.
For broad categories of information, see the Contents page.

Abnormalities from radiation. 16, 43, 44
Aerosol filters for biological warfare, 272
Air burst. 15, 16

Air pumps, see KAP. also see Ventilation
Air-slap of an air-blast wave. 259

Alpha radiation (or particles), and protection against. 44

Anhydrite. 26. 219

Atoms, radioactive, 12. 43. 44

Attack Warning Signal. 23

Attenuation of radiation. 14. 39

Auroras, artificial. 20

Batteries, conserving, 26. 100, 101
Beliefs, false re nuclear war. 5
Benches and bunks for shelters
expedient. 117, 118
permanent. 144, 145
Bequerel (Bq). 96

Beta burns, and prevention of. 43. 44, 130. 131
Beta radiation (or particles), and protection against. 43. 44.
130

Biological warfare aerosol filters, 272

Biological weapons, 8

Blast

areas. 29. 31, 243

doors. 252-255

effects. 15. 16. 28. 64

effects at distances from GZ, 28

injuries to eardrums and lungs. 252

negative phase (or negative pressure). 254-257

positive phase (or overpressure), 16, 65, 252

protector logs. 253-255

tests. 61

valve, expedient, 256, 257
wave, 24
wind, 63, 64
wind erosion. 245
Blindness, flash, 44
Bodies, disposal of, 105
Bombers, enemy. 25
Bq (bequerel). 96
Bucket Stove. 79-82
Burns

from beta radiations (or particles). 43, 44. 130

from heated air, 45

from the popcorning effect. 44. 45

from thermal pulse (heat rays) causing flash burns. 43. 44
of the eye. 44
Bursts, nuclear
air. 15

high altitude. 20
surface. 11

Cancer from gamma radiation (ray) doses
from trans-Pacific fallout. 152
risk estimates. 110, 111. 152-154
Candle-lamps. 149
Candles. 149

Canopies over entries. 41. 158. 159
Car, loading for evacuation. 34
Carbon dioxide, dangers from
fires. 61

respiration (exhaled breath). 53, 56
Carbon monoxide, dangers from
candles. 149

fires. 56. 61. 64. 65, 138. 148
smoking, 53
Cesium, radioactive. 76

cfm (cubic feet per minute) of air needed. 51-53, 59, 60
Chair, Bedsheet, 119-124

Chemical weapons. 8
Chernobyl disaster. 112. 152-154
Chimney effect (for ventilation), 51. 52
Chinese test explosion's worldwide fallout, 151, 152
Civil defense
American (budget only), 6
Chinese. 58. 63. 71. 248-252
Russian. 6. 7, 18. 56. 57. 65
Swiss. 6

Clothing and footwear, expedient
beta burns, protection against, 43, 44, 130, 131
cold weather. 125-127
keeping warm without fire, 129
mask, fallout. 130, 131
rainwear, including rain chaps. 129
sandals. 129. 130
winter footwear. 127. 128

Cooking and heating in a permanent shelter, 148, 149
Cooking, expedient
Bucket Stove. 79-82
Fireless Cooker, 82, 148
grain and beans, 82, 83
wheat balls and corn balls. 148. 149
Crater of explosion, 11. 12
Crisis

evacuation. 6, 31
preparations made during. 6
simulation during field tests, 36
Cuban Missile Crisis, 5
Cutting trees and poles. 157, 158

Decay, radioactive, 12. 13
Defense Nuclear Agpncy blast tests. 68, 244
Diarrhea. 77
Diets, see Food

Digging with pick and shovel. 156
Directional Fanning (ventilation)
importance of, 58
instructions, 59, 60
Distillation of water, 72
Doors, blast, expedient. 252-255
Dose, radiation. 12, 30, 39, 110, 111
Dose rate, radiation. 12, 13
Dose rate meters (survey meters). 12, 94
commercial sources, 96, 97
homemade, see KFM
war reserves of. 95
Dosimeters. 12. 94. 95
commercial sources. 96, 97
war reserves, 95
Dragging logs and poles. 157
Dresden firestorm. 65

Earth arching. 42

Earth rolls (earth-filled rolls), 156, 157
EBS (Emergency Broadcasting System), 23
Effective Temperature (ET), 52. 53
Electric power vulnerabilities. 23, 24. 47. 72
Electromagnetic pulse (EMP)
effects. 23, 24

NAWAS, unprotected against EMP, 22
protection against. 23. 26
Emergency Broadcasting System (EBS). 23
Emergency Operating Center (EOC). 23
EMP. see electromagnetic pulse
End of mankind propaganda, 5. 11. 16-19
Entrance (entry way) cover. 275. 276
Entries, vertical, for shelters,
expedient. 41, 174, 175, 249-252
permanent, 142-144. 273-275

ET (Effective Temperature), 52, 53
Evacuation, 27-35
by car, 34
check list. 32. 33
during crisis. 6, 31
spontaneous. 31
whether to, 31, 32, 47
Exit, emergency. 142-144
Exit housing, multi-purpose, 273-275
Exotic weapons, 8
"Expedient", definition of, 5

Fallout

attenuation (by shielding) of fallout radiation, 16, 39

beta burns from fallout, 43

clouds, 28. 55

clouds, stabilized, 27. 28

decay (of fallout radiation dose rate). 12, 43

deposition, times required for, 12, 13, 55

extent of, 25

high-risk areas. 29

highest-risk areas, 29

local. 15

origins of, 12

particles. 12, 43, 54. 55

patterns, 27

Trans-Pacific, 113. 151-154
weathering of, 13
Fallout masks, expedient. 130, 131

Fallout (radiation) meters, see Dose rate meters, also see
Dosimeters

Famine relief by trucked grain, 74
Fear. 20

Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), 6
FEMA (Federal Emergency Management Agency), 6
Fertility after nuclear war, 16, 76

Field tests (families building expedient shelters), 35, 36-42.
50, 155

Filter, and homemade filter box, 271, 272
Fire

carbon dioxide, fire-caused dangers, 61

carbon monoxide. 53. 54, 56. 61

causes of, 64

dangers, relative, 61, 64

easily ignitable materials. 14

forest and brush. 61

homes, 48. 62

oxygen depletion by. 61

protective measures, including whitewashing, 61, 63
secondary causes after blast, 61, 64
thermal radiation (ignition from fireball), 61. 62
urban. 61, 65
Fireball. 11. 15. 44, 61.62
Fireless Cookers. 82, 148
Firestorms. 14, 61. 65
Flash blindness, 44
Flash burns, 44
Food

baby foods, emergency, 89-91
basic survival ration to store, 88. 89, 147
contamination by fallout, and decontamination. 16
expedient processing. 77-79
flotation, of grain hulls. 78
grain and bean diets. 83-85. 88, 89
loss of animals, 75
meat, precautions post-attack. 75
minimum needs, 75. 76
multi-year storage, foods for, 88
nutrients, essential, expedient ways to provide
animal protein, minimum requirement. 87
fat. 87
iron, 87

niacin and calcium, 86, 87
vitamin A, 86
vitamin C. 84-86
vitamin D. 86

Food (continued)

one year supply, 146-148
requirements, daily, 84. 85
reserves in U.S., 87, 88
salt requirements, 53, 66, 83-86, 92
sieving husks from flour and meal, 78
sprouting, 85, 86
storage, 88-92, 105, 146
survival ration, basic, to store, 88, 89, 147
Footwear, expedient, 127-129
Furnishings for shelters
Bedsheet-Chair, 124
Bedsheet- Hammock, 119-123
benches, seats, and bunks. 117, 118, 144

Gamma radiation (rays). 14, 38-40, 94
Genetic damage from radiation. 16
Glass windows, dangers from, 24, 25
Grain mills
expedient, 77
hand-cranked. 148

Grains, grinding with farm machinery, 78
Gray (Gy) (unit of absorbed radiation dose). 96
Ground zero (GZ), 15

Halving-thickness of shielding material. 13. 14
Hammock. Bedsheet-. 119-123
H-bomb. 43

Help from fellow Americans, 21
Hewing flat, square sides on logs, 253, 255
Hiroshima, 15, 16, 44, 61, 64, 244
survivors, 21
warning, inadequate. 22
Hot-spots of radiation. 55

ICBM (Intercontinental Ballistic Missile). 23-25
sites, 29, 30

"In Time of Emergency". 45, 57
Infection prevention, 103-107

Initial nuclear radiation (from fireball), 15. 257-259
Insects, control by screens, etc., 51. 101, 104, 106, 141
Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM), 23-25
Iodine, tincture of, as prophylactic on skin, 116
Iodine, radioactive, 60, 72, 111-115, 152-154

KAP (Kearny Air Pump), expedient
advantages proven by tests, 50-54
instructions, complete, for making and using, 193-212
KFM (Kearny Fallout Meter), expedient dose rate meter
advantages proven by tests, 97-99

instructions, complete with patterns, for making and
using. 213-239

instructions, with tabloid layout sheet, for tabloid repro-
ductions of the KFM instructions, 241-242
needed materials and tools: only those found in millions of
homes, 97, 218, 219

untrained Americans who have made KFMs, 97, 99, 194
Kearny Air Pump, see KAP
Kearny Fallout Meter, see KFM
KI, see Potassium iodide
Kiloton (KT). 17

Lamps, commercial, 101
Lamps, expedient, 101. 102
Life-support equipment for shelters. 45
Light for shelters
candles. 101, 149

electric, with batteries and bulbs, 100, 101
daylight, through exit housing. 275
for permanent shelter, 149, 150
lamps, expedient, 101, 102
minimum needed. 100
Log dragging. 157

MAD (Mutual Assured Destruction), 6
Mask, expedient, fallout and dust. 43. 54, 130. 131

Megaton (MT), 14
Midgetman, 55

MIRV. Multiple Independently-targeted Reentry Vehicle.
27

Mutual Assured Destruction (MAD). 6
Myths about nuclear war, 11-19

Nagasaki, 13. 15-17. 21. 44, 243

National Academy of Sciences, findings and recommenda-
tions, 16. 53. 54. 110
National Shelter Survey (NSS). 47
National Warning System (NAWAS). 22
Nausea. 65

Navy shelter-occupancy tests. 52, 53
NAWAS (National Warning System). 22
Neglect, benign, 108, 109
Neutron warheads. 8
NSS (National Shelter Survey). 47
Nuclear attacks, types of. 7

Nuclear explosions, limits on destructiveness. 15-17
Nuclear weapons, accuracy and targets. 7
"Nuclear winter" theory. 17-19

Occupancy field tests of expedient shelters. 51, 52. 117-119
Occupancy field tests of permanent shelters. 52, 53, 66. 106
Overkill. 16. 17
Oxygen, lack of. 61

Paralysis, emotional, 20. 21
Pellagra. 86

PF (protection factor). 14. 29. 42. 134
Picocurie. 154
Plutonium. 43

Poles and logs, cutting and dragging. 157. 158
Popcorning effect, skin burns. 44. 45
Population relocation (crisis evacuation). 6, 31
Potassium iodide (KI)

doses for thyroid protection during and after nuclear war.
113. 114. 116.

doses for thyroid protection during and after peacetime
nuclear accidents, 111-113, 116
expedient ways to prepare and take. 115. 116
FDA official patient information. 112, 113
prophylactic use for protection against Trans-Pacific
fallout. 152. 153
ways to obtain. 114
Protection factor (PF). 14. 29. 42. 134
'Protection in the Nuclear Age", 45, 57
psi (pounds per square inch). 15
Psychology of Survival. 20. 21
Public shelters. 47. 48

Pump. Double- Action Piston, instructions for making and
ventilating shelters with, 261-270
Punkah (fan). 50

R (roentgen). 94. 110
Rad. 110
Radiation doses
delayed effects. 13
genetic injuries from. 16
lethal. 13. 94

lifetime risks from. 110. Ill
non-incapacitating. 13
whole-body. 13

Radiation meters for measuring fallout
commercially available models. 96
critical need for. 94
KFM (expedient), see KFM

maintenance and calibration of factory made meters. 97
war reserves. 95
warnings to buyers. 95
Radiation sickness. 110, 111
Radiation world wide effects. 110
Radioactive decay. 12
Radios, how to keep operating. 26
Rain-outs (of fallout particles). 29. 55
Rainwear, 129
Rem, 110

Respiratory diseases, control of, 107

Risk areas, high, highest, 29-31
Roentgen (R). 94. 110
Runways, long, targeted. 24
Russian civil defense. 6, 7. 18. 56, 57, 65

Salt requirements, 53. 66, 83-86
Sanitation in shelters, expedient
disposal of corpses. 105
disposal of excrement and urine. 104, 105
disposal of vomit, 105
food, 105, 106

insect control, 104, 106, 141
personal possessions. 106
Scavenging of fallout particles. 55
Screens, insect. 44. 106, 141
Scurvy, 84. 85

SDI (Strategic Defense Initiative), 5

Seeds to store. 92. 93

Shelter Survey. National (NSS). 47

Shelter types, advantages and disadvantages of. 47-49

Shelters

as post-attack homes. 273-276
needs often overlooked, 150
practice living in, 150
Shelters, blast, expedient. 7. 49
construction principles. 245-255
doors, 252-255
entryways, 242-252
increasing importance of. 243
tests of. 244-246, 248
yentilation. 255

Shelters, blast, permanent. 7. 49

Shelters, fallout, against beta and alpha radiation (particles),
43.44

Shelters, fallout, expedient, 7
basement, 45. 46
building experiments, 36-42
building instructions, general. 155-159
Car-Over-Trench. 54
earth-covered (shielded). 35, 36. 47-49. 65
instructions, detailed, for six types, see Contents page
snow-covered (shielded), 48. 158
Shelters, fallout, official civil defense (FEMA) instructions,
45

Shelters, fallout, permanent, 7
Shelters, fallout, permanent family. 134-150
Shelters, fallout, public. 47. 48
Shielding
barrier, 39
geometry, 39. 40

Shielding materials, halving thicknesses, 13. 14
Shock wave (blast wave), 44
Sievert (Sv) (dose equivalent), 96
Skin diseases, prevention of. 106, 107
Skyshine, 39. 41

SLBM, targets of and arrival times. 23-25, 31

Snow for shielding. 158

Snow-outs (of fallout), 55

Soviet nuclear strategy. 27

Star Wars. 5

Stove, expedient, for cooking and heating. 79-82
Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), 5
Strontium, radioactive, 78

Submarine launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs). and targets
of. 23-25, 31
Surface burst, 11

Survey meters (dose rate meters), 12, 94. 96. 97
Surviving without doctors (self-help). 108-116
Sv (Sievert) (dose equivalent). 96
Swiss civil defense budget. 6

Tactical warning. 22. 24
Targets, probable, 16, 29, 31
Television and EMP, 23. 24
Temperature, effective. 52
Terror. 20

Thermal (heat) radiation from fireball
ignitions by, 14.61 -63
other effects. 44
protective measures. 61-63

Thirst. 66

Three Mile Island accident, 152
Thumb-test for stable earth. 155
Thyroid abnormalities, damage to
Marshall Islanders. Ill

by other exposures to radioactive iodine. 111. 152
Thyroid abnormalities, prevention of
by means other than prophylactic potassium iodide. 115,
116

by prophylactic potassium iodide, see Potassium iodide
Toilets, expedient, 103. 104
Toxins, bacterial. 75
Transistors, EMP damage. 26
Tree felling, 157
Trench digging. 156
Tunnel shelters at Nagasaki, 15

Ultraviolet, post-attack, exaggerations of dangers. 17
Urination and water, minimum needs, 66

Ventilation, shelter, safe times for stopping, 272
Ventilation/cooling of shelters
cold weather. 53
cooling before occupying, 54
filtered air. 54

forced, by expedient air pumps, ire K AP, also see Directional
Fanning, also see Appendix E
hot weather, 52. 53
inhalation dangers. 54. 55
natural. 53

need for shelter air pumps. 193, 194
requirements, 50-53, 56

through multi-purpose exit housing. 273. 274
warnings re official instructions. 56-58
without filters, 54

Vitamins, expedient ways to provide
niacin. 86. 87
vitamin A. 86
vitamin C. 84-86
vitamin D. 86
Vomiting. 104

Warnings of attack, 22-25
given by the attack itself. 23-25
how to respond to. 25
NAWAS, 22, 23
types of. 22
Water. 66-74

bags, expedient, for carrying and storing, 66-68
bail-can for wells. 71
disinfecting
boiling. 70

chlorine bleach. 69. 70
tincture of iodine. 2%, 70

filtering, including removal of radioactivity, 71-74
minimum needs. 66

permanent shelter, supplies for. 145, 146
requirements, 66
salt needs with. 66
siphoning. 69, 70
sources, 71
storage pits. 66
storing for years, 145
storing in expedient containers. 67-69
Weathering effects, reducing fallout hazards, 13
Windows, dangers from shattered glass. 24, 25

X rays. 12, 13

*7 do not understand or accept the morality of a policy
which requires that the lives of innocent children, women and
men, whether Soviet or American, be held hostage to the
political power and authority of the leaders of either nation.

/ think it immoral for national leadership to fail to plan for
national survival and population protection. "

Bardyl Tirana, Director of the
Defense Civil Preparedness Agency
during the Carter Administration

I his updated and expanded edition of Nuclear If ar Survival Skills gives instructions that
have enabled untrained Americans to make high-protection-factor expedient shelters, elfieicnt air
pumps to ventilate and cool shelters, the only homemakeable fallout radiation meter that is
accurate and dependable, and other life-support equipment. These instructions have been
developed by Oak Ridge National Laboratory civil defense researchers and others over the past 14
years, and have been field-tested repeatedly under simulated crisis conditions.

Over 400.000 privately reproduced copies of the original 1979 Oak Ridge National
Laboratory edition have been sold.

You and your family can improve your chances of surviving during and altera nuclear attack
by learning the nuclear facts and following the self-help instructions given in this book.

Cresson Kearny is the leading inventor and field-tester of self-help survival equipment. He
holds a B.S. in Civil Engineering from Princeton University and two Honours degrees trom
Oxford, where he studied as a Rhodes Scholar. Before and during World War II Kearny
pioneered the development and testing of jungle combat equipment. In 1904 he initiated sell -help
civil defense research at Oak Ridge National Laboratory work that he has continued in many
states and several countries.

“This book takes a long overdue step in educating the
A merican people. It does not suggest that survival is easy. It does
not prove that national survival is possible. But it can save lives
and it will stimulate thought and action which will be crucial in
our two main purposes:

to preserve freedom and to avoid war. ”

Dr. Edward Teller

“ Readers will he astonished at the wide variety of the problems which have excited his
enquiry and the cunning simplicity of some of his solutions. There is no other book which offers so
rounded a view of this large subject nor any on a smaller scale which one could recommend with so
few reservations. ”

Journal of the Institute of

Civil Defence, London

Oregon Institute of Science and Medicine
Cave Junction, Oregon

$12.50

ISBN 0-942487-01 -X